Objectives Cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy (HE) can adversely affect survival, but their effect on socioeconomic and emotional burden on the family is not clear. The aim was to study the emotional and socioeconomic burden of cirrhosis and HE on patients and informal caregivers. Methods A cross-sectional study in two transplant centers (Veterans and University) of cirrhotic patients and their informal caregivers was performed. Demographics for patient/caregivers, model-for-end-stage liver disease (MELD) score, and cirrhosis complications were recorded. Patients underwent a cognitive battery, sociodemographic, and financial questionnaires. Caregivers were given the perceived caregiver burden (PCB; maximum = 155) and Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI)-Short Form (maximum = 48) and questionnaires for depression, anxiety, and social support. Results A total of 104 cirrhotics (70% men, 44% previous HE, median MELD 12, 49% veterans) and their caregivers (66% women, 77% married, relationship duration 32 ± 14 years) were included. Cirrhosis severely impacted the family unit with respect to work (only 56% employed), finances, and adherence. Those with previous HE had worse unemployment (87.5 vs. 19%, P = 0.0001) and financial status (85 vs. 61%, P = 0.019) and posed a higher caregiver burden; PCB (75 vs. 65, P = 0.019) and ZBI (16 vs. 11, P = 0.015) compared with others. Cognitive performance and MELD score were significantly correlated with employment and caregiver burden. Veterans and non-veterans were equally affected. On regression, depression score, MELD, and cognitive tests predicted both PCB and ZBI score. Conclusions Previous HE and cognitive dysfunction are associated with worse employment, financial status, and caregiver burden. Cirrhosis-related expenses impact the family unit's daily functioning and medical adherence. A multidisciplinary approach to address this burden is required.

Primary care services in or alongside emergency departments look and function differently and are described using inconsistent terminology. Research to determine effectiveness of these models is hampered by outdated classification systems, limiting the opportunity for data synthesis to draw conclusions and inform decision-making and policy. We used findings from a literature review, a national survey of Type 1 emergency departments in England and Wales, staff interviews, other routine data sources and discussions from two stakeholder events to inform the taxonomy. We categorised the forms inside or outside the emergency department: inside primary care services may be integrated with emergency department patient flow or may run parallel to that activity; outside services may be offered on site or off site. We then describe a conceptual spectrum of integration: identifying constructs that influence how the services function—from being closer to an emergency medicine service or to usual primary care. This taxonomy provides a basis for future evaluation of service models that will comprise the evidence base to inform policy-making in this domain. Commissioners and service providers can consider these constructs in characterising and designing services depending on local circumstances and context.

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of power politics, also failing to take into account the social foundation of power. Herein lies the dilemma: action to defend the nation cannot be taken in isolation from the political imperative for social consent. Even one of the founding philosophers of political realism, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), strongly advocated good government of the people by avoiding unnecessary wars: Salus populi suprema lex: by which must be understood, not the mere preservation of their lives, but generally their benefit and good. For such commonwealths, or such monarchs, as affect war for itself, that is to say, out of ambition, or of vain glory, or that make account to revenge every little injury, or disgrace done by their neighbours, if they ruin not themselves, their fortune must be better than they have reason to expect. 9