Rapid environmental change is driving the need for complex and comprehensive scientific information that supports policies aimed at managing natural resources through international treaties, platforms, and networks. One successful approach for delivering such information has been the development of essential variables for climate (1), oceans (2), biodiversity (3), and sustainable development goals (4) (ECVs, EOVs, EBVs, and ESDGVs, respectively). These efforts have improved consensus on terminology and identified essential sets of measurements for characterizing and monitoring changes on our planet. In doing so, they have advanced science and informed policy. As an important but largely unanticipated consequence, conceptualizing these variables has also given rise to discussions regarding data discovery, data access, and governance of research infrastructures. Such discussions are vital to ensure effective storage, distribution, and use of data among management agencies, researchers, and policymakers (5,6).Although the current essential variables frameworks account for the biosphere, atmosphere, and some aspects of the hydrosphere (1-4), they largely overlook geodiversity-the variety of abiotic features and processes of the land surface and subsurface (7). Analogous to biodiversity, geodiversity is important for the maintenance of ecosystem functioning and services (8), and areas high in geodiversity have been Mining is one example of the human impact on geodiversity. Active mines cause a decrease in local biodiversity, but in some cases they can provide an important habitat for specialized and rare species after the mine has been abandoned. Image credit: Shutterstock/1968.

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Abstract. Linking landslide size and frequency is important at both human and geological timescales for quantifying both landslide hazards and the effectiveness of landslides in the removal of sediment from evolving landscapes. The statistical behaviour of the magnitude-frequency of landslide inventories is usually compiled following a particular triggering event such as an earthquake or storm, and their statistical behaviour is often characterised by a power-law relationship with a small landslide rollover. The occurrence of landslides is expected to be influenced by the material properties of rock and/or regolith in which failure occurs. Here we explore the statistical behaviour and the controls of a secular landslide inventory (SLI) (i.e. events occurring over an indefinite geological time period) consisting of mapped landslide deposits and their underlying lithology (bedrock or superficial) across the United Kingdom. The magnitude-frequency distribution of this secular inventory exhibits an inflected power-law relationship, well approximated by either an inverse gamma or double Pareto model. The scaling exponent for the power-law scaling of medium to large landslides is α = −1.71 ± 0.02. The small-event rollover occurs at a significantly higher magnitude (1.0-7.0 × 10 −3 km 2 ) than observed in single-event landslide records (∼ 4 × 10 −3 km 2 ). We interpret this as evidence of landscape annealing, from which we infer that the SLI underestimates the frequency of small landslides. This is supported by a subset of data where a complete landslide inventory was recently mapped. Large landslides also appear to be under-represented relative to model predictions. There are several possible reasons for this, including an incomplete data set, an incomplete landscape (i.e. relatively steep slopes are under-represented), and/or temporal transience in landslide activity during emergence from the last glacial maximum toward a generally more stable late-Holocene state. The proposed process of landscape annealing and the possibility of a transient hillslope response have the consequence that it is not possible to use the statistical properties of the current SLI database to rigorously constrain probabilities of future landslides in the UK.

8 9In order to determine the structure of the Chalk in the London Basin, a combined cognitive and 10 numerical approach to model construction was developed. A major difficultly in elucidating the 11 structure of the Chalk in the London Basin is that the Chalk is largely unexposed. The project had to 12 rely on subsurface data such as boreholes and site investigation reports. Although a high density of 13 data was available problems with the distribution of data and its quality meant that, an approach 14 based on a numerical interpolation between data points could not be used in this case. Therefore a 15 methodology was developed that enabled the modeller to pick out areas of possible faulting and to 16 achieve a geologically reasonable solution even in areas where the data was sparse or uncertain. 17 18 By using this combined approach, the resultant 3D model for the London Basin was more 19 consistent with current geological observations and understanding. In essence, the methodology 20 proposed here decreased the disparity between the digital geological model and current geological 21 knowledge. Furthermore, the analysis and interpretation of this model resulted in an improved 22 understanding of how the London Basin evolved during the Cretaceous period. 23 24 2

Salt marshes deliver vital ecosystem services by providing habitats, storing pollutants and atmospheric carbon, and reducing flood and erosion risk in the coastal hinterland. Net losses in salt marsh areas, both modelled globally and measured regionally, are therefore of concern. Amongst other controls, the persistence of salt marshes in any one location depends on the ability of their substrates to resist hydrodynamic forcing at the marsh front, along creek margins and on the vegetated surface. Where relative sea level is rising, marsh elevation must keep pace with sea‐level rise and landward expansion may be required to compensate for areal loss at exposed margins. This paper reviews current understanding of marsh substrate resistance to the near‐instantaneous (seconds to hours) forcing induced by hydrodynamic processes. It outlines how variability in substrate properties may affect marsh substrate stability, explores current understanding of the interactions between substrate properties and erosion processes, and how the cumulative impact of these interactions may affect marsh stability over annual to decadal timescales. Whilst important advances have been made in understanding how specific soil properties affect near‐instantaneous marsh substrate stability, less is known about how these properties interact and alter bulk substrate resistance to hydrodynamic forcing. Future research requires a more systematic approach to quantifying biological and sedimentological marsh substrate properties. These properties must then be linked to specific observable erosion processes, particularly at the marsh front and along creek banks. A better understanding of the intrinsic dynamics and processes acting on, and within, salt marsh substrates will facilitate improved prediction of marsh evolution under future hydrodynamic forcing scenarios. Notwithstanding the additional complications that arise from morphodynamic feedbacks, this would allow us to more accurately model the future potential protection from flooding and erosion afforded by marshes, while also increasing the effectiveness of salt marsh restoration and recreation schemes. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd