SummaryLymphocytes and neutrophils are rapidly depleted by systemic infection1. Progenitor cells of the hematopoietic system, such as common myeloid progenitors (CMPs) and common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), increase the production of immune cells to restore and maintain homeostasis during chronic infection, but the contribution of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) to this process is largely unknown2. Using an in vivo mouse model of Mycobacterium avium infection, we show that an increased proportion of long-term repopulating HSCs (LT-HSCs) proliferate during M. avium infection, and that this response requires interferon-gamma (IFNγ) but not interferon-alpha (IFNα) signaling. Thus, the hematopoietic response to chronic bacterial infection involves the activation not only of intermediate blood progenitors but of LT-HSCs as well. IFNγ is sufficient to promote LT-HSC proliferation in vivo; furthermore, HSCs from mice deficient in IFNγ have a lower proliferative rate, indicating that baseline IFNγ tone regulates HSC activity. These findings are the first to implicate IFNγ both as a regulator of HSCs during homeostasis and under conditions of infectious stress. Our studies contribute to a deeper understanding of hematologic responses in patients with chronic infections such as HIV/AIDS or tuberculosis3-5.

A unique property of many adult stem cells is their ability to exist in a non-cycling, quiescent state1. Although quiescence serves an essential role in preserving stem cell function until the stem cell is needed in tissue homeostasis or repair, defects in quiescence can lead to an impairment in tissue function2, the extent to which stem cells can regulate quiescence is unknown. Here, we show that the stem cell quiescent state is composed of two distinct functional phases: G0 and an “alert” phase we term GAlert, and that stem cells actively and reversibly transition between these phases in response to injury-induced, systemic signals. Using genetic models specific to muscle stem cells (or satellite cells (SCs)), we show that mTORC1 activity is necessary and sufficient for the transition of SCs from G0 into GAlert and that signaling through the HGF receptor, cMet is also necessary. We also identify G0-to-GAlert transitions in several populations of quiescent stem cells. Quiescent stem cells that transition into GAlert possess enhanced tissue regenerative function. We propose that the transition of quiescent stem cells into GAlert functions as an ‘alerting’ mechanism, an adaptive response that positions stem cells to respond rapidly under conditions of injury and stress without requiring cell cycle entry or a cell fate commitment.

Preface Cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems are the progeny of a variety of hematopoietic precursors, the most primitive of which is the hematopoietic stem cell. Hematopoietic stem cells have been thought of generally as dormant cells that are only called upon to divide under extreme conditions, such as marrow ablation through radiation or chemotherapy. However, recent studies suggest that hematopoietic stem cells respond directly and immediately to infections and inflammatory signals. In this Review, we will summarize the current literature regarding the effects of infection on hematopoietic stem cell function and how these effects may have a pivotal role in directing the immune response from the bone marrow.

As the intestinal microbiota has become better appreciated as necessary for maintenance of physiologic homeostasis and also as a modulator of disease processes, there has been a corresponding increase in manipulation of the microbiota in mouse models. While germ-free mouse models are generally considered to be the gold standard for studies of the microbiota, many investigators turn to antibiotics treatment models as a rapid, inexpensive, and accessible alternative. Here we describe and compare these two approaches, detailing advantages and disadvantages to both. Further, we detail what is known about the effects of antibiotics treatment on cell populations, cytokines, and organs, and clarify how this compares to germ-free models. Finally, we briefly describe recent findings regarding microbiota regulation of infectious diseases and other immunologic challenges by the microbiota, and highlight important future directions and considerations for the use of antibiotics treatment in manipulation of the microbiota.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the progenitors of all blood and immune cells; yet their role in immunity is not well understood. Most prior studies have focused on the ability of committed lymphoid and myeloid precursors to replenish immune cells during infection. Recent studies, however, have indicated that HSCs also proliferate in response to systemic infection to replenish effector immune cells. Inflammatory signaling molecules including interferons, tumor necrosis factor-α, and Toll-like receptors are essential to the HSC response. Observing the biology of HSCs through the lens of infection and inflammation has led to the discovery of an array of immune-mediators that serve crucial roles in HSC regulation and function.