The results suggest that male and female Ottomans may possess distinct population histories, with males and females divergent from each other in terms of their biological affinities. The Ottoman communities appear diverse in terms of constituting a mix of peoples from different biological backgrounds. The greater distances between sexes from the same community, and the differences between communities, may be evidence that the processes of migration and conversion impacted individual people and groups diversely.

Objectives Written accounts, as well as a previous craniometric study, indicate that migrations of non‐Europeans and conversions of Europeans to Islam define Ottoman communities in Early Modern Europe. What is less clear are the roles of migration and admixture in generating intra‐communal variation. This study combines craniometric with strontium isotope data to compare the cranial affinities of locally born and immigrant individuals. We predict that locally born individuals are more likely than non‐locals to show evidence of admixture. Materials and Methods Radiogenic strontium isotope data for 21 Ottomans were compared against archaeological faunal values. Sixteen individuals with intact crania were also measured and compared against two comparative source populations from Anatolia and Europe. Discriminant function analysis assigned unclassified Ottoans to either comparative group based on typicality probabilities, with potential admixture established via intermediate morphology between the two source populations. Results Strontium isotope values revealed relatively high proportions of non‐locals, consistent with high mobility documented historically. The sexes differed, with more males classifying as “typically Anatolian” than females. Locals and non‐locals also had different cranial affinity patterns, with most classifying either as “typically Anatolian” or “typically European.” Contrary to expectation, none of the locals were identified as intermediate, suggesting admixture rates were relatively low. Conclusions Consistent with historical records, the results revealed high levels of extra‐regional migration, with most individuals identifiable as either typically Anatolian or European. Moreover, locals and non‐locals differed craniometrically, with no signs of admixture between Anatolian migrants and European converts in locals. This suggests intra‐communal divisions were maintained.

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As a cultural isolate and historically labeled ethnicity, the extent of biological divergence between Vlachs and non-Vlachs in Southeast Europe is not well understood.Here, we present a comparison of metric and non-metric cranial morphology designed to investigate the degree to which a Vlach sample (n = 32) from the Ottoman period in southern Croatia is biologically differentiated from non-Vlach communities. By calculating Relethford-Blangero distances using cranial measurements and conducting a mean measure of divergence test based on cranial nonmetric traits, we investigated morphological relationships between the Vlach sample and other regional samples. Results from both metric and non-metric analyses indicate a close biological relationship with the non-Vlach community who lived nearby. Lacking substantial differences from the local non-Vlach community, the Vlach ethnicity may have been distinct based on socioeconomic rather than biological factors. This research points to an ethnogenesis more cultural than biological for this historical context.