No abstract

Even young EFL learners who have not yet learned L2 grammar will notice language patterns if, when retrieving exemplars ("item-based patterns"), they succeed in making form-meaning connections (FMCs). Item-based patterns, termed formulaic sequences (FS), serve as a basis for creative constructions. Although learners are implicitly sensitive to the frequency of the occurrence of constructions, item-based patterns are largely overlooked and are not retained. Because of the gap between elementary and secondary schools, students believe there is a difference between item-based patterns and the process of learning grammar. This phenomenon extends to EFL. The study investigated the extent to which Japanese students who had completed 150 hours of English lessons (age 13, N = 95) noticed linguistic patterns when using a grammatical judgment test. Targeting the present progressive form -ing as FS, the teacher used three treatments: (a) recall of chunking, (b) structured input and dictogloss, and (c) a ten-minute inductive explication of grammar in L1. The results revealed significant differences between pre-and post-tests for awkwardness of word order (31% < 59%) and omission of morphemes: -ing (61% < 74%). Overall, students who had received the instructional medium exhibited grammatical sensitivity to FS.

This study's purpose was twofold: First, it was aimed at constructing and validating a quantitative measurement instrument to determine the structure of a self-efficacy scale that measures teachers' 21st century skills on the basis of educational activities. Second, it was intended to analyze in what areas teachers exhibit excellent and poor self-efficacy. To these ends, empirical data (N = 132) were collected via a web-based, theoretically informed questionnaire applicable to the professional domain of education and intended to cultivate teacher education in a global society. The questionnaire incorporated 21st century skills, seven transversal competencies stipulated in the Finnish curriculum, and PISA 2015 global competencies, which considerably influenced the development of a Japanese course of study released in 2018. From a viewpoint that focuses on teachers' practical and performative abilities in realizing the new course of study, the inquiry was directed toward the extent to which teachers can deliver lessons and work in school organizations. The exploratory factor analysis revealed three determinants. The results also indicated that the structure of teachers' 21st century skills comprises three dimensions: interactive task performance, the ability to develop a pluriliteracies approach in foreign language teaching, and analytical design thinking. These findings enrich current 21st century skills and benefit educators and school organizations with an interest in fostering teacher education. The repeated-measures analysis of variance between the factors showed that the differences were statistically significant. The self-efficacy of teachers with respect to factor 1 was high, but such competency was low in terms of factor 2. The participating Japanese teachers considered themselves skilled at raising pupils' self-consciousness and carrying out tasks such as active learning and project planning in teams, albeit they acknowledged weakness in developing lessons that tackle work in a global society. In addition, the findings on the three factors suggested the potential of teachers to design new frameworks that can be used across disciplines, such as science, the arts, and fields dealing with emotions.