This article deals with one particular aspect of economic decolonisation: the inclusion of local managers in the companies of the former colonial powers, in this case, the promotion of Indonesians to managerial and supervisory positions in Dutch multinationals. The Indonesian government blamed Dutch companies for being too slow in training and promoting local managers, and Dutch historiography agreed with that judgement. The replacement of expatriates by local managers, however, should be considered in the broader context of the diverse functions of expatriates. This article argues that for multinationals the use of expatriates is essential for creating a social network that enables knowledge transfer and control. The local subsidiaries profited from the transfer of knowledge and expertise; becoming part of that international network through exchange of staff is more important than getting rid of all expatriates.

The intricate interplay among environmental pressure groups, oil companies, and governments is revealed from the perspective of the Anglo-Dutch company Royal Dutch Shell. An examination of three environmental issues demonstrates the company's awareness of such problems and describes its efforts to contain potential damage to the degree permitted by existing technological and economic constraints. The industry view is that government measures should create a level playing field and should be effective and economically feasible. While pressure groups are skilled at calling attention to environmental problems, industry highlights the tradeoffs between different societal aims that are entailed in tackling these problems. Governments are left to fi nd the best ways to weigh conflicting interests.

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On the basis of articles in contemporary periodicals, literature, and company archives, this article explores the views of entrepreneurs and society about what constitutes the responsibility of entrepreneurs. From the mid-nineteenth century, we can trace discussions about how entrepreneurs should behave in their own company and toward society, but these ideas were far from constant over time. The changing views on the social responsibilities of entrepreneurs give us therefore important information about changes in the national business system. Though focused on the Dutch entrepreneurs in their relationship to Dutch society, the article includes the influence of ideas from abroad. International management literature abounded in the Netherlands, and multinational companies often picked up ideas from other countries. How companies and entrepreneurs defined their responsibilities depended to a large extent on the criticisms launched by the outside world. Entrepreneurs and company managers responded to concerns in the society of which they formed part, and the progressive ones among them, the true leaders, searched for ways of reconciling the requirements of their business with the demands of the society.