Water-based lubricants (WBLs) have been at the forefront of recent research, due to the abundant availability of water at a low cost. However, in metallic tribo-systems, WBLs often exhibit poor performance compared to petroleum-based lubricants. Research and development indicate that nano-additives improve the lubrication performance of water. Some of these additives could be categorized as solid nanoparticles, ionic liquids, and bio-based oils. These additives improve the tribological properties and help to reduce friction, wear, and corrosion. This review explored different water-based lubricant additives and summarized their properties and performances. Viscosity, density, wettability, and solubility are discussed to determine the viability of using water-based nano-lubricants compared to petroleum-based lubricants for reducing friction and wear in machining. Water-based liquid lubricants also have environmental benefits over petroleum-based lubricants. Further research is needed to understand and optimize water-based lubrication for tribological systems completely.

BACKGROUND:The search for a biomarker specific for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) has been long, arduous and, to date, unsuccessful. Researchers need to consider their expenditures on each new candidate biomarker. In a previous study of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) by natural killer lymphocytes, we found lower ADCC for ME/CFS patients vs. unrelated donors but ruled against low ADCC as a biomarker because of similar ADCC for patients vs. their family members without ME/CFS. OBJECTIVE: We applied inclusion of family members without ME/CFS, from families with multiple CFS patients, as a second non-ME/CFS control group in order to re-examine inflammation in ME/CFS. METHOD: Total and CD16A-positive 'non-classical' anti-inflammatory monocytes were monitored. RESULTS: Non-classical monocytes were elevated for patients vs. unrelated healthy donors but these differences were insignificant between patients vs. unaffected family members. CONCLUSIONS: Inclusion of family members ruled against biomarker considerations for the monocytes characterized. These pilot findings for the non-classical monocytes are novel in the field of ME/CFS. We recommend that occupational therapists advocate and explain to family members without ME/CFS the need for the family members' participation as a second set of controls in pilot studies to rapidly eliminate false biomarkers, optimize patient participation, and save researchers' labor.

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is characterized by fatigue that does not improve with rest and worsens with exertion. ME/CFS may involve inflammation in the brain and/or be associated with viral infections. Increased numbers of pro-inflammatory monocytes in blood are a hallmark of infection. Biomarkers for, and information about, the CFS disease process are greatly needed. Here we queried circulating monocytes. In a pilot study, CFS patients and family members without CFS from three families were compared in order to reduce genetic and environmental variables. The patients conformed to the Fukuda 1994 standards. Unrelated healthy control subjects matched to the patients were included in the study. Blood monocytes were stained and analyzed by flow cytometry: counted with TruCountR beads, or stained after isolation and overnight culture of isolated peripheral blood monocytes. M1 pro-inflammatory monocytes are CD16A negative, while anti-inflammatory monocytes are CD16A positive; CD2 is a marker for dendritic monocytes, and changes in forward scatter could indicate in vitro activation. Notably, there were statistically significant differences between the lower percentages of M1 monocytes of the CFS patients compared to the controls; however, these differences were not significant between the patients and their family members without CFS. Also, the CD16A MFIs of the patients' monocytes were lower compared to controls but not to family members. One conclusion is that it is important to include family members without CFS as a control group in the search for biomarkers to diagnose CFS.