As it is not possible to name any particular founders or pioneers in nationalism studies, instead of primordialist and modern interpretations, this paper reads nationalism in chronological order by dividing them into four sections. The first section focuses on how nationalism started to be defined as a concept by referring to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Sturm und Drang movement, Immanuel Kant’s definition of freedom, the importance given to language by Johann Gottfried Herder and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s social contract, whereas the second one deals with the awakening of nationalism with reference to the French Revolution, John Stuart Mill’s seeing nation as a portion of mankind, Ernst Renan’s definition of the nation as a spiritual thing, and Marxism’s undefinition of the term. The third section discusses the acceleration of nationalism studies by mentioning Carlton J. H. Hayes’ classification of modern nationalism, Hans Kohn’s classification of nationalism into western and non-western and Edward Hallett Carr’s division of the history of international relations into three periods, and the last section analyses the period when nationalism studies is at its peak by giving references to the definitions of nationalism by Ernest Gellner as political principle, Elie Kedourie as an invented doctrine, Anthony David Smith as an ideological movement, Eric Hobsbawm as invented tradition, Benedict Anderson as imagined communities and Michael Billig as banal.
This article looks at how two European travellers from the 17th century, Dutch Cornelius de Bruyn and British John Covel, depict clothing in the Ottoman Empire. While both individuals record their observations about clothes, their methodologies and viewpoints are very different. Dutch painter De Bruyn concentrates on the aesthetic features of clothes, portraying the beauty and complexity of Ottoman fabrics and needlework. Covel, an English priest, on the other hand, is more concerned with the social and cultural significance of clothes in Ottoman society, highlighting the function clothing plays in defining identity and status. This article gives insight into the range and complexity of clothing in the Ottoman Empire, as well as how they are seen by European travellers, through an examination of their texts and images.
Many studies have been conducted on the novels of accomplished American author John Steinbeck (1902-1968). His Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) is about the rural class's profound economic problems during the Great Depression. Steinbeck's interest in the subject is thought to stem from his own real-life experiences as a labourer before becoming an author. On the other hand, despite the fact that Turkish novelist Yaşar Kemal's (1923-2015) novels have been translated into numerous languages, including English, Russian, French, and Italian, there has been little academic study of them. Kemal, like Steinbeck, supported his family by working as an agricultural labourer. Another thing the two novelists have in common is that they both worked as journalists later in their lives. In his novels, Kemal weaves together Anatolian legends and contemporary reality. The Legend of The Thousand Bulls (1976) is about Turkey's last nomadic Turkmen tribes, who are desperately looking for a place to settle and spend the winter. The Grapes of Wrath is about an Oklahoma Dust Bowl family's migration to California and the hardships they face after losing their farm. Both novels contain familiar social criticism elements. From a social realist standpoint, this article compares the novels in terms of new beginnings, migration, representation of state authority, and otherness.
The collapse of the World Trade Center Towers in 2001 opened a new era in world history. As a global mark, the period that followed the September 11 attacks brought more unease not only to the United States but to several countries with special damages to some Asian countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Pakistan. The dominating debris image was soon shaped and reinterpreted by the defensive attitude of the American government to launch a war against terror. Besides promoting an effective security policy by democratic means in the American sense, surveillance measures were also heightened, making Camp X-Ray in Guantanamo Bay notorious for its dehumanizing service. Taking its departure from September 11, this paper aims to analyze the detainee camp in Guantanamo post-9/11 in its retold version in the film with the same name Camp X-Ray (2014) with a focus on the nation’s foundational rhetoric of power that does not abstain from dehumanizing attitudes. Unlike the prison system, the camp in Guantanamo for the detainees erases one’s individuality and offers endless nothingness for the one inside. Also, this reveals America’s psyche after 9/11.
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