Cannabidiol (CBD) is a hydrophobic non-psychoactive compound with therapeutic characteristics. Animal and human studies have shown its poor oral bioavailability in vivo, and the impact of consuming lipid-soluble CBD with and without food on gut bioaccessibility has not been explored. The purpose of this research was to study the bioaccessibility of CBD after a three-phase upper digestion experiment with and without food, and to test lipase activity with different substrate concentrations. Our results showed that lipase enzyme activity and fatty acid absorption increased in the presence of bile salts, which may also contribute to an increase in CBD bioaccessibility. The food matrix used was a mixture of olive oil and baby food. Overall, the fed-state digestion revealed significantly higher micellarization efficiency for CBD (14.15 ± 0.6% for 10 mg and 22.67 ± 2.1% for 100 mg CBD ingested) than the fasted state digestion of CBD (0.65 ± 0.7% for 10 mg and 0.14 ± 0.1% for 100 mg CBD ingested). The increase in bioaccessibility of CBD with food could be explained by the fact that micelle formation from hydrolyzed lipids aid in bioaccessibility of hydrophobic molecules. In conclusion, the bioaccessibility of CBD depends on the food matrix and the presence of lipase and bile salts.

This review describes sources of structures of non-microspore origin observed in anther and microspore cultures. Various characteristics of these structures may cause a wrong diagnosis of these structures as embryos or cell/tissue clusters of microspore origin. Here we suggest such structures to be named as pseudoembryogenic structures. The introduction of pseudo-embryogenic structures and their origins could be helpful to distinguish them from true microspore-derived structures. Prompted by certain environmental cues, somatic cells existing as a contamination in immature pollen (microspores) cultures can lead to the formation of 'pseudo-embryos' commonly known as embryoids. The pseudo-embryogenic structures may be classified in the following groups: (i) pseudo-star-like structures; pseudo-multicellular structures; (ii) pseudo-embryos with pseudo-suspensors; (iii) contaminating bacteria appearing as callus colonies; (iv) calli and embryos of somatic origin; (v) giant tetrad-like structures; (vi) anther wall cells. The exact origin of these structures is discussed in this paper, and some recommendations are proposed in order to avoid misinterpretation.

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Plants can regenerate new organs from damaged or detached tissues. In the process of de novo root regeneration (DNRR), adventitious roots are frequently formed from the wound site on a detached leaf. Salicylic acid (SA) is a key phytohormone regulating plant defenses and stress responses. The role of SA and its acting mechanisms during de novo organogenesis is still unclear. Here, we found that endogenous SA inhibited the adventitious root formation after cutting. Free SA rapidly accumulated at the wound site, which was accompanied by an activation of SA response. SA receptors NPR3 and NPR4, but not NPR1, were required for DNRR. Wounding-elevated SA compromised the expression of AUX1, and subsequent transport of auxin to the wound site. A mutation in AUX1 abolished the enhanced DNRR in low SA mutants. Our work elucidates a role of SA in regulating DNRR and suggests a potential link between biotic stress and tissue regeneration.

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