The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is initiated by Bcl-2 homology region 3 (BH3)-only members of the Bcl-2 protein family. On upregulation or activation, certain BH3-only proteins can directly bind and activate Bak and Bax to induce conformation change, oligomerization and pore formation in mitochondria. BH3-only proteins, with the exception of Bid, are intrinsically disordered and therefore, functional studies often utilize peptides based on just their BH3 domains. However, these reagents do not possess the hydrophobic membrane targeting domains found on the native BH3-only molecule. To generate each BH3-only protein as a recombinant protein that could efficiently target mitochondria, we developed recombinant Bid chimeras in which the BH3 domain was replaced with that of other BH3-only proteins (Bim, Puma, Noxa, Bad, Bmf, Bik and Hrk). The chimeras were stable following purification, and each immunoprecipitated with full-length Bcl-xL according to the specificity reported for the related BH3 peptide. When tested for activation of Bak and Bax in mitochondrial permeabilization assays, Bid chimeras were ~1000-fold more effective than the related BH3 peptides. BH3 sequences from Bid and Bim were the strongest activators, followed by Puma, Hrk, Bmf and Bik, while Bad and Noxa were not activators. Notably, chimeras and peptides showed no apparent preference for activating Bak or Bax. In addition, within the BH3 domain, the h0 position recently found to be important for Bax activation, was important also for Bak activation. Together, our data with full-length proteins indicate that most BH3-only proteins can directly activate both Bak and Bax.

The assembly of β-barrel proteins into membranes is a fundamental process that is essential in Gram-negative bacteria, mitochondria and plastids. Our understanding of the mechanism of β-barrel assembly is progressing from studies carried out in Escherichia coli and Neisseria meningitidis. Comparative sequence analysis suggests that while many components mediating β-barrel protein assembly are conserved in all groups of bacteria with outer membranes, some components are notably absent. The Alphaproteobacteria in particular seem prone to gene loss and show the presence or absence of specific components mediating the assembly of β-barrels: some components of the pathway appear to be missing from whole groups of bacteria (e.g. Skp, YfgL and NlpB), other proteins are conserved but are missing characteristic domains (e.g. SurA). This comparative analysis is also revealing important structural signatures that are vague unless multiple members from a protein family are considered as a group (e.g. tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) motifs in YfiO, β-propeller signatures in YfgL). Given that the process of the β-barrel assembly is conserved, analysis of outer membrane biogenesis in Alphaproteobacteria, the bacterial group that gave rise to mitochondria, also promises insight into the assembly of β-barrel proteins in eukaryotes.

Bak and Bax mediate apoptotic cell death by oligomerizing and forming a pore in the mitochondrial outer membrane. Both proteins anchor to the outer membrane via a C-terminal transmembrane domain, although its topology within the apoptotic pore is not known. Cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and hydrophilic labeling confirmed that in healthy mitochondria the Bak α9 segment traverses the outer membrane, with 11 central residues shielded from labeling. After pore formation those residues remained shielded, indicating that α9 does not line a pore. Bak (and Bax) activation allowed linkage of α9 to neighboring α9 segments, identifying an α9:α9 interface in Bak (and Bax) oligomers. Although the linkage pattern along α9 indicated a preferred packing surface, there was no evidence of a dimerization motif. Rather, the interface was invoked in part by Bak conformation change and in part by BH3:groove dimerization. The α9:α9 interaction may constitute a secondary interface in Bak oligomers, as it could link BH3:groove dimers to high-order oligomers. Moreover, as high-order oligomers were generated when α9:α9 linkage in the membrane was combined with α6:α6 linkage on the membrane surface, the α6-α9 region in oligomerized Bak is flexible. These findings provide the first view of Bak carboxy terminus (C terminus) membrane topology within the apoptotic pore. Mitochondrial permeabilization during apoptosis is regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. 1-3 Although the Bcl-2 homology 3 (BH3)-only members such as Bid and Bim trigger apoptosis by binding to other family members, the prosurvival members block apoptosis by sequestering their pro-apoptotic relatives. Two remaining members, Bak and Bax, form the apoptotic pore within the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM).Bak and Bax are globular proteins comprising nine α-helices. 4,5 They are activated by BH3-only proteins binding to the α2-α5 surface groove, 6-12 or for Bax, to the α1/α6 'rear pocket'. 13 Binding triggers dissociation of the latch domain (α6-α8) from the core domain (α2-α5), together with exposure of N-terminal epitopes and the BH3 domain. 6,7,14-16 The exposed BH3 domain then binds to the hydrophobic groove in another Bak or Bax molecule to generate symmetric homodimers. 6,7,14,17,18 In addition to dimerizing, parts of activated Bak and Bax associate with the lipid bilayer. 19 In Bax, the α5 and α6 helices may insert into the MOM, 20 although recent studies indicate that they lie in-plane on the membrane surface, with the hydrophobic α5 sandwiched between the membrane and a BH3:groove dimer interface. 7,[21][22][23] The dimers can be linked via cysteine residues placed in α6, 18,24,25 and more recently via cysteine residues in either α3 or α5, 6,21 allowing detection of the higherorder oligomers associated with pore formation. 26,27 However, whether these interactions are required for high-order oligomers and pore formation remains unclear.Like most Bcl-2 members, Bak and Bax are targeted to the MOM via a hydrophobic C-terminal region. The C terminus targets Bak to the...