UV-radiations are the invisible part of light spectra having a wavelength between visible rays and X-rays. Based on wavelength, UV rays are subdivided into UV-A (320-400 nm), UV-B (280-320 nm) and UV-C (200-280 nm). Ultraviolet rays can have both harmful and beneficial effects. UV-C has the property of ionization thus acting as a strong mutagen, which can cause immune-mediated disease and cancer in adverse cases. Numbers of genetic factors have been identified in human involved in inducing skin cancer from UV-radiations. Certain heredity diseases have been found susceptible to UV-induced skin cancer. UV radiations activate the cutaneous immune system, which led to an inflammatory response by different mechanisms. The first line of defense mechanism against UV radiation is melanin (an epidermal pigment), and UV absorbing pigment of skin, which dissipate UV radiation as heat. Cell surface death receptor (e.g. Fas) of keratinocytes responds to UV-induced injury and elicits apoptosis to avoid malignant transformation. In addition to the formation of photo-dimers in the genome, UV also can induce mutation by generating ROS and nucleotides are highly susceptible to these free radical injuries. Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) has been known to be implicated in different UV-induced damages such as pigmentation, adaptive tanning, and skin cancer. UV-B induces the formation of pre-vitamin D3 in the epidermal layer of skin. UV-induced tans act as a photoprotection by providing a sun protection factor (SPF) of 3-4 and epidermal hyperplasia. There is a need to prevent the harmful effects and harness the useful effects of UV radiations.
The rules for compensation for injury and death in clinical trials have recently been notified. These rules clarify that medical management of all injuries in clinical trials is mandatory and in cases in which injury or death is related to the clinical trial, the subject (or nominee) is entitled to compensation over and above the medical management. They also specify procedures and timelines for reporting serious adverse events. These require simplification. The rules will hopefully make clinical trial safer for subjects and investigators alike. However, they suffer from certain inconsistencies that should be reconsidered. They need to be modified so that they do not damage the industry.
A spinal cord injury (SCI) is any injury of the spinal cord caused due to trauma and mostly comprise of damage to the nerves associated with the spinal cord and they can be classified as being complete or incomplete. Spinal cord injuries account for a majority of lower body disabilities due to accidents and trauma. Cell transplantation, as a therapeutic intervention for spinal cord injury (SCI), has been extensively studied by scientists and researchers in recent years using stem cell that has shown considerable promise in treating patients with SCI and thus restores lost functions by replacing lost or damaged cell populations. Spinal cord injuries account for a majority of lower body disabilities due to accidents and trauma. SCI also paves way for a lot of other disabilities associated with blood vessels as well and bone deformities. The global burden of SCI, economically, runs into millions as complete cure is not possible. The number of clinical trials that have been conducted for phase 1 studies of spinal cord injury is a staggering number and currently 246 trials are being conducted in their initial phases. However, many questions remain unanswered and more continue to emerge. This review will comprehensively cover publications in the field from the last years and examine the biological effects of SCI.
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