Although cellular reprogramming enables the generation of new cell types for disease modeling and regenerative therapies, reprogramming remains a rare cellular event. By examining reprogramming of fibroblasts into motor neurons and multiple other somatic lineages, we find that epigenetic barriers to conversion can be overcome by endowing cells with the ability to mitigate an inherent antagonism between transcription and DNA replication. We show that transcription factor overexpression induces unusually high rates of transcription and that sustaining hypertranscription and transgene expression in hyperproliferative cells early in reprogramming is critical for successful lineage conversion. However, hypertranscription impedes DNA replication and cell proliferation, processes that facilitate reprogramming. We identify a chemical and genetic cocktail that dramatically increases the number of cells capable of simultaneous hypertranscription and hyperproliferation by activating topoisomerases. Further, we show that hypertranscribing, hyperproliferating cells reprogram at 100-fold higher, neardeterministic rates. Therefore, relaxing biophysical constraints overcomes molecular barriers to cellular reprogramming.

Direct lineage conversion could provide a rich source of somatic cell types for translational medicine, but concerns over the use of transgenic reprogramming factors have limited its potential. In this issue of Cell Stem Cell, Li et al. (2015) and Hu et al. (2015) identify small-molecule cocktails that can convert fibroblasts into functional neurons without exogenous genetic factors.