Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), the innate immunity receptor for bacterial endotoxins, plays a pivotal role in the induction of inflammatory responses. There is a need to develop molecules that block either activation through TLR4 or the downstream signaling pathways to inhibit the storm of inflammation typically elicited by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is a major cause of the high mortality associated with bacterial sepsis. We report here that a single intraperitoneal injection of 15μg Fasciola hepatica fatty acid binding protein (Fh12) 1 hour before exposure to LPS suppressed significantly the expression of serum inflammatory cytokines in a model of septic shock using C57BL/6 mice. Because macrophages are good source of IL12p70 and TNFα, and critical in driving adaptive immunity, we investigated the effect of Fh12 on the function of mouse bone marrow derived macrophages (bmMΦs). Whereas Fh12 alone did not induce cytokine expression, it significantly suppressed the expression of IL12, TNFα, IL6 and IL1β cytokines as well as iNOS2 in bmMΦs, and also impaired the phagocytic capacity of bmMΦs. Fh12 had a limited effect on the expression of inflammatory cytokines induced in response to other TLR-ligands. One mechanism used by Fh12 to exert its anti-inflammatory effect is binding to the CD14 co-receptor. Moreover, it suppresses phosphorylation of ERK, p38 and JNK. The potent anti-inflammatory properties of Fh12 demonstrated here open doors to further studies directed at exploring the potential of this molecule as a new class of drug against septic shock or other inflammatory diseases.

Coprological examination based on egg detection in stool samples is currently used as the gold standard for the diagnosis of human fascioliasis. However, this method is not effective during the acute phase of the disease and has poor sensitivity during the chronic phase. Serodiagnosis has become an excellent alternative to coprological examination in efforts to combat the effects of fascioliasis on human and animal health. Two novel recombinant Fasciola hepatica proteins, i.e., a ferritin (FhFtn-1) and a tegument-associated protein (FhTP16.5), were used as antigens to develop in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods. The assays were optimized and validated using 152 serum samples from humans with a known infection status, including healthy subjects, patients with chronic fascioliasis, and patients with other parasitic diseases. The FhFtn-1 ELISA was shown to be 96.6% sensitive and 95.7% specific; the respective parameters for the FhTP16.5 ELISA were 91.4% and 92.4%. The performances of the FhFtn-1 and FhTP16.5 ELISAs were compared with that of an available commercial test (the DRG test) using a subset of serum samples. Our in-house tests were slightly more sensitive than the DRG test in detecting antibodies against F. hepatica, but the differences were not statistically significant. In conclusion, the present study provides evidence for the potential of the FhFtn-1 and FhTP16.5 ELISAs as diagnostic tools for human fascioliasis, as might be implemented in conjunction with standard assays for large-scale screenings in areas where the disease is endemic and for the detection of occasional cases in clinical laboratories.

ABSTRACTA cDNA encoding a 16.5-kDa protein termed FhTP16.5 was identified by immunoscreening of a cDNA library fromFasciola hepaticaadult flukes using pooled sera from rabbits infected withF. hepaticafor 4 weeks. Quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qPCR) analysis revealed that FhTP16.5 is not expressed in unembryonated eggs. It is poorly expressed in miracidia and highly expressed at the juvenile and adult stages; however, significant differences were found between the expression levels of FhTP16.5 in juveniles versus adult flukes. Recombinant FhTP16.5 was expressed at high levels inEscherichia coli, purified by affinity chromatography, and used to raise anti-FhTP16.5 polyclonal antibodies in rabbits. Immunoblot analysis using the anti-FhTP16.5 IgG antibody identified FhTP16.5 in crude and tegumental extracts and in excretory-secretory products ofF. hepatica. The protein was not detected in crude extracts ofSchistosoma mansoniorSchistosomajaponicum. Antibodies to FhTP16.5 were detected in the sera of rabbits at 3 to 12 weeks ofF. hepaticainfection as well as in the sera of humans with chronic fascioliasis; these findings suggest that FhTP16.5 could be a good antigen for serodiagnosis of fascioliasis. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that FhTP16.5 localizes to the surface of the tegument of various developmental stages and in parenchymal tissues of the adult fluke. Such specific localization makes FhTP16.5 an attractive target for immunoprophylaxis or chemotherapy.

FhSAP2 is a novel antigen isolated from the adult fluke of Fasciola hepatica. Based on sequence similarity with amoebapores and other related proteins, it belongs to the saposin-like protein (SAPLIP) family. FhSAP2 has been shown to be highly immunogenic and capable of inducing protective immune responses in mice and rabbits challenged with F. hepatica. Moreover, FhSAP2 is also reactive with sera from humans with chronic fascioliasis. In the present study, we investigated the expression of FhSAP2 in various developmental stages of F. hepatica by qPCR and demonstrated that FhSAP2-mRNA species are up-regulated in undeveloped eggs, newly excysted juveniles, and adults, but down-regulated in the miracidium stage. Monoclonal antibodies against FhSAP2 were produced, and two clones that are positive to F. hepatica whole-body extract, but not reactive with extracts from other trematodes, were selected, expanded and used for histolocalization studies. Confocal immunofluorescence revealed the presence of native FhSAP2 in epithelial cells surrounding the gut, toward the outermost part of the tegument, and toward the tegumental cells of both adults and newly excysted juveniles.

Ferritins are proteins that play a central role in maintaining intracellular iron balance. A cDNA clone of Fasciola hepatica (687 bp long) encoding a putative 228-amino acid polypeptide (FhFtn-1) homologous with ferritins of vertebrates and invertebrates was identified. FhFtn-1 contains a conserved motif of the ferroxidase center typical of vertebrate ferritins. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that FhFtn-1 clusters with two ferritins of Paragonimus westermani, which suggests a common ancestry for the ferritins of these two trematodes. Recombinant FhFtn-1 protein expressed and purified from an Escherichia coli system showed iron-uptake ability. Moreover, FhFtn-1 showed strong reactivity with sera from rabbits infected with F. hepatica for 2–12 weeks, which suggests that this protein could be a potential antigen for immunodiagnosis of fascioliasis. qPCR analysis demonstrated that FhFtn-1-mRNA is expressed at significantly higher levels in adults and unembryonated eggs than in juveniles or miracidia. These results represent the first characterization of a ferritin protein from the liver fluke F. hepatica.