Development of information technology and the globalization require constant investment in people. New and emerging technologies such as autonomous systems, machine learning and AI radically re-contextualize the human dimension of the organization. Strategic changes have revealed new critical vulnerabilities such as social media-based election meddling and disinformation campaigning with impact on the human aspects at state, societal, organizational and individual levels. Education and training raise the level of expertise, skills and competences and ensure better performance in complex cyber situations. Researchers have addressed assumptions, models, concepts and cognitive aspects of human performance in the cyber domain. However, the theories and approaches of human learning in training and exercises are only partly touched. New techniques for enhancing organizational cyber resilience to cyber-attacks are needed and they still lack sound theoretical foundations. This article aims to advance the discussion suggesting viewpoints on training and exercises in the cyber domain, taking into consideration specifics of skills in cyber security. It provides overview of theories of learning to better support human performance. Our critical interpretation enhances the comprehensive understanding of decision-making, learning theories, and design of cyber security training and exercises. Furthermore, our intention is to constructively promote discussion on current issues about human learning in cyber training and education and thus boost multidisciplinary studies to enhance cyber awareness.

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The European Union promotes innovation through its funding programmes for research and innovation. To support the innovation process, one of these projects, ECHO, aims to deliver a Societal Impact Assessment (SIA) toolkit to assess the impact of establishing a European network of cybersecurity competence centres. This article provides an overview of the theoretical foundations on network co-creation and inter-organizational knowledge transfer as learning outcomes, and discusses these approaches in performing impact assessment at the societal level. Literature review on evaluation and assessment, co-creative innovation, and learning approaches are examined, summarized and combined into a learning and SIA-outcomes Matrix. Measurement of impacts through a digital Societal Impact Assessment toolkit can improve the quality of the value creation. Towards that purpose, we offer an approach that combines traditional evaluation and assessment, co-creative innovation, learning and SIA-outcomes in a practical Matrix to provide an applicable element towards a more comprehensive SIA-toolkit for the ECHO network.

Jean Piaget described that intelligence is shaped by experience. In augmented reality (AR) learning environments, the learner may have an immersive experience, from a sensor-motoric opportunity as a person to 3D experience. Few studies in the academic literature directly evaluate and analyze learning technology with regard to immersive experience in training. This chapter seeks to examine learning experiences when playing with AR learning technologies and suggests an alternative implementation model for the integration of immersive learning content to adult training. Specifically, this study examines a learning tool and a game targeted for the professionals working in security and peacebuilding context. This study points out a relevance of cognitive and constructive learning processes with a special attention to experience and reflection, and that technological immersive tools can positively support training when designed properly. Moreover, case study findings led to proposing an implementation model to integrate immersive content, AR tools, and games into adult training.