Protein-protein interactions play pivotal roles in various aspects of the structural and functional organization of the cell, and their complete description is indispensable to thorough understanding of the cell. As an approach toward this goal, here we report a comprehensive system to examine two-hybrid interactions in all of the possible combinations between proteins of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We cloned all of the yeast ORFs individually as a DNA-binding domain fusion (''bait'') in a MATa strain and as an activation domain fusion (''prey'') in a MAT␣ strain, and subsequently divided them into pools, each containing 96 clones. These bait and prey clone pools were systematically mated with each other, and the transformants were subjected to strict selection for the activation of three reporter genes followed by sequence tagging. Our initial examination of Ϸ4 ؋ 10 6 different combinations, constituting Ϸ10% of the total to be tested, has revealed 183 independent two-hybrid interactions, more than half of which are entirely novel. Notably, the obtained binary data allow us to extract more complex interaction networks, including the one that may explain a currently unsolved mechanism for the connection between distinct steps of vesicular transport. The approach described here thus will provide many leads for integration of various cellular functions and serve as a major driving force in the completion of the protein-protein interaction map.
A marked improvement in the thermoelectric performance of dense ZnO ceramics is achieved by employing a third element as a co-dopant with Al. Dual doping of ZnO with Al and Ga results in a drastic decrease in the thermal conductivity of the oxide, while the decrease in the electrical conductivity is relatively small. With the aid of a significant enhancement in the thermopower, the dually doped oxide shows thermoelectric figure of merit values, ZT, values of 0.47 at 1000 K and 0.65 at 1247 K at the composition Zn 0.96 Al 0.02 Ga 0.02 O. These results appear to be the highest ZT values so far reported for bulk n-type oxides. Microscopic observation of the samples reveals a granular texture in the densely sintered oxide matrix, suggesting that considerable reduction of the thermal conductivity while maintaining high electrical conductivity could be achieved by such a bulk nanocomposite structure in the samples.
Trust in government is expected to promote effective implementation of public services. However, people in different cultures and on different levels do not always recognize the same concept of trust. Using a survey for Japanese and Norwegian citizens, the primary factors determining trust on the local level are examined. The analysis shows that the satisfaction with public service performance is highly influential in both countries, which is partly also true for political-cultural factors, while demographical factors are of minor influence. There are also variations in trust toward different institutions and actors, and the national factor is also significant.
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