Regarding to the upcoming techniques in neuroendoscopy the IVth ventricle was examined. First in a series of 30 fresh and fixed anatomical specimens-the vessels injected with LATEX-the fourth ventricle was investigated endoscopically. There are three possibilities to reach the IVth ventricle: coming from the IIIrd ventricle via the aqueductus cerebri, using the basal cisterns through the apertura lateralis Luschkae and coming via the cerebellomedullar cistern through the foramen of Magendi. Using different kinds of endoscopes (rigid, flexible and steerable flexible)-diameter ranging from 5 to 9 french-with different optical systems (0 degree, 5 degrees, 30 degrees, 75 degrees) and different light sources (Halogen, Xenon) the anatomical details seen under the endoscope and the topographical landmarks of the approaches were investigated, presented and discussed. Based on the experience at the end of the cadaver work a short comment on which kind of equipment seems the best was given. A series of 14 clinical cases was presented as the second part of the study (7 cases with a tumor in the IVth ventricle-2 metastasis, 3 gliotic tumors, 1 ependymoma, 1 medulloblastoma, 3 patients with an occluded aqueduct because of meningo-ventriculitis and 4 patients with cystic malformations). The neuroendoscopic approaches, the neuroanatomical details relevant for surgery and the clinical data will be given and discussed. In general no intraoperative or postoperative complications were seen. In conclusion our experience from the theoretical neuroanatomical and the clinical part as well as the advantages and disadvantages from the different kind of endoscopes and approaches are discussed.

Improvement of the prognosis for children suffering from hydrocephalus requires prompt diagnosis and reliable indication of surgical treatment. Today, intrauterine hydrocephalus is detectable within the first three months of pregnancy; in infancy, before the cranial sutures have fused, pathological growth of the head is the principal sign confirming together with anatomical examinations (ultrasound, CT scan) the indication of operative treatment. In later childhood, surgical treatment is only definitely indicated by symptoms and morphological examination of clearly active hypertensive hydrocephalus. Intermittently normotensive hydrocephalus (not "normal-pressure-hydrocephalus"!) showing symptoms adapted to childhood, however, often requires exact examination of intracranial pressure dynamics, including quantitative volume provocation test. "Step-by-step-procedure" is advisable (Table III).

To explore the safety and the effectiveness of laparoscopic and thoracoscopic spinal surgery, an acute/non-survival animal trial was performed in 5 pigs using rigid and flexible endoscopes, flouroscopy, a holmium-YAG laser, and prototype instruments and implants. Our study aimed to approach the intervertebral disc space and spinal canal using laparoscopic and thoracoscopic techniques and to explore the potential and limits for endoscopic anterior spinal decompression and fusion. In a lateral recumbency access was provided to the anterolateral aspect of the lumbar spine from L1/2 to L7/S1, the thoracic spine was accessible from T2/3 to the diaphragmatic insertion. Complete disc space emptying with penetration into the spinal canal could be performed, epidural bleeding could be controlled by a hemostatic sponge, however bleeding restricted visualization for further endoscopic manipulation in the spinal canal. Intervertebral fusion was accomplished at T6/7, L4/5 and L7/S1 using small fragment plates with 3.5 mm screws and iliac bone grafts or prototype carbon fiber cages. On post mortem examination we found no dural tears and no nerve root damage, all animals had stabilized fusion sites and good implant position. We conclude that minimally invasive thoracoscopic and laparoscopic approaches to the spine are feasible and safe to perform disc decompression and implant placement for spinal fusion. In addition to currently performed laparoscopic interbody fusion, also plate fixation to reestablish lordosis of the lumbar spine is feasible at least in the porcine model. Careful disc decompression must be performed prior to implant introduction to prevent iatrogenic disc protrusion and spinal cord or nerve root compression. However, further surgical exploration of the spinal canal using these techniques does not provide adequate visualization of epidural spaces and therefore must be regarded as unsafe.

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