AR protein expression was 22% higher in the benign prostate and 81% higher in the CaP of black African compared with white men. CaP may occur at a younger age and progress more rapidly in black than in white men due to racial differences in androgenic stimulation of the prostate.

Lymph node density proved to be a significantly better prognosticator of disease specific survival than the current TNM nodal staging system in patients with penile cancer and nodal involvement. Further independent validation is required to determine the clinical usefulness of lymph node density in this patient population.

Currently we are just beginning to understand the molecular mechanisms and clinical effects of COX-2 function and inhibition, and the potential for COX-2 specific inhibitors to affect potentially tumor biology and growth and, thereby, serve as antitumor drugs with therapeutic and chemopreventive roles for urological cancers. The absence of complete scientific understanding in these areas provides a generous opportunity for innovative and important scientific study.

Tissue levels of testosterone and DHT did not differ by race. However, black men had higher tissue ASD and SHBG than white men. Higher tissue ASD did not result in a greater conversion of ASD to testosterone in the prostate of black men. Higher tissue SHBG may activate the androgen receptor through cyclic adenosine monophosphate dependent pathways.