Direct reprogramming of somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be achieved by overexpression of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc transcription factors, but only a minority of donor somatic cells can be reprogrammed to pluripotency. Here we demonstrate that reprogramming is a continuous stochastic process where almost all donor cells eventually give rise to iPSCs upon continued growth and transcription factor expression. Additional inhibition the p53/p21 pathway or overexpression of Lin28 increased the cell division rate and resulted in an accelerated kinetics of iPSC formation that was directly proportional to the increase in cell proliferation. In contrast, Nanog overexpression accelerated reprogramming in a predominantly cell division rate independent manner. Quantitative analyses define distinct cell division rate dependent and independent modes for accelerating the stochastic course of reprogramming, and suggest that the number of cell divisions is a key parameter driving epigenetic reprogramming to pluripotency.

Although biochemical signals that modulate stem cell self-renewal and differentiation were extensively studied, only recently were the mechanical properties of a stem cell's microenvironment shown to regulate its behavior. It would be desirable to have independent control over biochemical and mechanical cues, to analyze their relative and combined effects on stem-cell function. We developed a synthetic, interfacial hydrogel culture system, termed variable moduli interpenetrating polymer networks (vmIPNs), to assess the effects of soluble signals, adhesion ligand presentation, and material moduli from 10-10,000 Pa on adult neural stem-cell (aNSC) behavior. The aNSCs proliferated when cultured in serum-free growth media on peptide-modified vmIPNs with moduli of >/=100 Pa. In serum-free neuronal differentiation media, a peak level of the neuronal marker, beta-tubulin III, was observed on vmIPNs of 500 Pa, near the physiological stiffness of brain tissue. Furthermore, under mixed differentiation conditions with serum, softer gels ( approximately 100-500 Pa) greatly favored neurons, whereas harder gels ( approximately 1,000-10,000 Pa) promoted glial cultures. In contrast, cell spreading, self-renewal, and differentiation were inhibited on substrata with moduli of approximately 10 Pa. This work demonstrates that the mechanical and biochemical properties of an aNSC microenvironment can be tuned to regulate the self-renewal and differentiation of aNSCs.

Human and mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are derived from blastocyst-stage embryos but have very different biological properties, and molecular analyses suggest that the pluripotent state of human ESCs isolated so far corresponds to that of mouse-derived epiblast stem cells (EpiSCs). Here we rewire the identity of conventional human ESCs into a more immature state that extensively shares defining features with pluripotent mouse ESCs. This was achieved by ectopic induction of Oct4, Klf4, and Klf2 factors combined with LIF and inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK1/2) pathway. Forskolin, a protein kinase A pathway agonist which can induce Klf4 and Klf2 expression, transiently substitutes for the requirement for ectopic transgene expression. In contrast to conventional human ESCs, these epigenetically converted cells have growth properties, an X-chromosome activation state (XaXa), a gene expression profile, and a signaling pathway dependence that are highly similar to those of mouse ESCs. Finally, the same growth conditions allow the derivation of human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells with similar properties as mouse iPS cells. The generation of validated “naïve” human ESCs will allow the molecular dissection of a previously undefined pluripotent state in humans and may open up new opportunities for patient-specific, disease-relevant research.

Direct reprogramming of somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells by ectopic expression of defined transcription factors has raised fundamental questions regarding the epigenetic stability of the differentiated cell state. In addition, evidence has accumulated that distinct states of pluripotency can inter-convert through the modulation of both cell-intrinsic and exogenous factors. To fully realize the potential of in vitro reprogrammed cells, we need to understand the molecular and epigenetic determinants that convert one cell type into another. Here we review recent advances in this rapidly moving field and emphasize unresolved and controversial questions.