We hypothesized that reduced respiratory neural activity elicits compensatory mechanisms of plasticity that enhance respiratory motor output. In urethane-anesthetized and ventilated rats, we reversibly reduced respiratory neural activity for 25–30 min using: hypocapnia (end tidal CO2 = 30 mmHg), isoflurane (~ 1%) or high frequency ventilation (HFV; ~100 breaths/min). In all cases, increased phrenic burst amplitude was observed following restoration of respiratory neural activity (hypocapnia: 92 ± 22%; isoflurane: 65 ± 22%; HFV: 54 ± 13% baseline), which was significantly greater than time controls receiving the same surgery, but no interruptions in respiratory neural activity (3 ± 5% baseline, p<0.05). Hypocapnia also elicited transient increases in respiratory burst frequency (9 ± 2 versus 1 ± 1 bursts/min, p<0.05). Our results suggest that reduced respiratory neural activity elicits a unique form of plasticity in respiratory motor control which we refer to as inactivity-induced phrenic motor facilitation (iPMF). iPMF may prevent catastrophic decreases in respiratory motor output during ventilatory control disorders associated with abnormal respiratory activity.

The neural network controlling breathing must establish rhythmic motor output at a level adequate to sustain life. Reduced respiratory neural activity elicits a novel form of plasticity in circuits driving the diaphragm known as inactivity-induced phrenic motor facilitation (iPMF), a rebound increase in phrenic inspiratory output observed once respiratory neural drive is restored. The mechanisms underlying iPMF are unknown. Here, we demonstrate in anesthetized rats that spinal mechanisms give rise to iPMF, and that iPMF consists of at least two mechanistically distinct phases: 1) an early, labile phase that requires atypical PKC (PKCζ and/or PKCΙ/λ) activity to transition to a 2) late, stable phase. Early (but not late) iPMF is associated with increased interactions between PKCζ/Ι and the scaffolding protein ZIP/p62 in spinal regions associated with the phrenic motor pool. Although PKCζ/Ι activity is necessary for iPMF, spinal aPKC activity is not necessary for phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF) following acute intermittent hypoxia, an activity-independent form of spinal respiratory plasticity. Thus, while iPMF and pLTF both manifest as prolonged increases in phrenic burst amplitude, they arise from distinct spinal cellular pathways. Our data are consistent with the hypotheses that: 1) local mechanisms sense and respond to reduced respiratory-related activity in the phrenic motor pool, and 2) inactivity-induced increases in phrenic inspiratory output require local PKCζ/Ι activity to stabilize into a long-lasting iPMF. Although the physiological role of iPMF is unknown, we suspect that iPMF represents a compensatory mechanism, assuring adequate motor output in a physiological system where prolonged inactivity ends life.

Intermittent hypoxia-induced long-term facilitation (LTF) is variably expressed in the motor output of several inspiratory nerves, such as the phrenic and hypoglossal. Compared to phrenic LTF (pLTF), less is known about hypoglossal LTF (hLTF), although it is often assumed that cellular mechanisms are the same. While fundamental mechanisms appear to be similar, potentially important differences exist in the modulation of pLTF and hLTF. The primary objectives of this paper are to: 1) review similarities and differences in pLTF and hLTF, pointing out knowledge gaps, and 2) present new data suggesting that reduced respiratory neural activity elicits differential plasticity in phrenic and hypoglossal output (inactivity-induced phrenic and hypoglossal motor facilitation, iPMF and iHMF), suggesting that these motor pool specific differences are not unique to LTF. Differences in fundamental mechanisms or modulation of plasticity among motor pools may confer the capacity to mount a complex ventilatory response to specific challenges, particularly in motor pools with different “jobs” in the control of breathing.

Multiple forms of plasticity are activated following reduced respiratory neural activity. For example, in ventilated rats, a central neural apnea elicits a rebound increase in phrenic and hypoglossal burst amplitude upon resumption of respiratory neural activity, forms of plasticity called inactivity-induced phrenic and hypoglossal motor facilitation (iPMF and iHMF), respectively. Here, we provide a conceptual framework for plasticity following reduced respiratory neural activity to guide future investigations. We review mechanisms giving rise to iPMF and iHMF, present new data suggesting that inactivity-induced plasticity is observed in inspiratory intercostals (iIMF) and point out gaps in our knowledge. We then survey conditions relevant to human health characterized by reduced respiratory neural activity and discuss evidence that inactivity-induced plasticity is elicited during these conditions. Understanding the physiological impact and circumstances in which inactivity-induced respiratory plasticity is elicited may yield novel insights into the treatment of disorders characterized by reductions in respiratory neural activity.

A central neural apnea in ventilated rats elicits an aPKC and TNFα dependent form of plasticity called inactivity‐induced phrenic motor facilitation (iPMF), a rebound increase in phrenic burst amplitude that is apparent when respiratory neural activity is restored. We hypothesized that iPMF following local reductions in synaptic inputs to the phrenic pool occurs via similar mechanisms. Bilateral phrenic output was recorded in anesthetized and ventilated rats. Procaine or vehicle (~200 nl) was injected in the C2 ventrolateral funiculus (VLF) to reversibly reduce axon conduction (~25 min) on one side of the spinal cord. Procaine reduced ipsilateral (−82 + 5 %baseline, p<0.05), but not contralateral (−22 + 16 %baseline, p>0.05) phrenic amplitude. Upon axon conduction recovery, only ipsilateral phrenic amplitude was significantly increased (60 min post: ipsi: 83± 22 %baseline, p<0.01; contra: 33 + 13 %baseline, p>0.05); while no changes in ipsilateral or contralateral phrenic amplitude were observed in vehicle treated rats (10 + 6 and 6 + 8 %baseline; p>0.05). Intrathecal aPKC inhibitor (ZIP) or TNFα scavenger (sTNFR1) blocked ipsilateral iPMF (60min: 24 + 11 and 16 + 7 %baseline, respectively, p>0.05). These data suggest that iPMF induced by local reductions in descending synaptic inputs to the phrenic pool require similar cellular pathways as iPMF following global reductions in respiratory neural activity. NIH HL105511