TNF-α induced a dose- and time-dependent increase in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and PGE2 formation in human NCI-H292 epithelial cells. Immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that COX-2 was expressed in cytosol and nuclear envelope. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (genistein or herbimycin) or phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122) blocked TNF-α-induced COX-2 expression. TNF-α also stimulated phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and protein kinase C (PKC) activity, and both were abolished by genistein or U73122. The PKC inhibitor, staurosporine, also inhibited TNF-α-induced response. The 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), a PKC activator, also stimulated COX-2 expression, this effect being inhibited by genistein or herbimycin. NF-κB DNA-protein binding and COX-2 promoter activity were enhanced by TNF-α, and these effects were inhibited by genistein, U73122, staurosporine, or pyrolidine dithiocarbamate. TPA stimulated both NF-κB DNA-protein binding and COX-2 promoter activity, these effects being inhibited by genistein, herbimycin, or pyrolidine dithiocarbamate. The TNF-α-induced, but not the TPA-induced, COX-2 promoter activity was inhibited by phospholipase C-γ2 mutants, and the COX-2 promoter activity induced by either agent was attenuated by dominant-negative mutants of PKC-α, NF-κB-inducing kinase, or I-κB (inhibitory protein that dissociates from NF-κB) kinase (IKK)1 or 2. IKK activity was stimulated by both TNF-α and TPA, and these effects were inhibited by staurosporine or herbimycin. These results suggest that, in NCI-H292 epithelial cells, TNF-α might activate phospholipase C-γ2 via an upstream tyrosine kinase to induce activation of PKC-α and protein tyrosine kinase, resulting in the activation of NF-κB-inducing kinase and IKK1/2, and NF-κB in the COX-2 promoter, then initiation of COX-2 expression and PGE2 release.

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Because the transcription factor, nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB, plays a key role in cellular inflammatory and immune responses, components of the NF-kappaB-activating signaling pathways are frequently used as targets for anti-inflammatory agents. This study shows that 2-(3',4'-dihydroxyphenyl)-5-hydroxybenzo[b]furan (GF-015) and 2,3-di(3',4'-dihydroxy-transstyryl) pyridine (GF-90), two conjugated polyhydroxybenzene derivatives, inhibited a common step in NF-kappaB activation in human NCI-H292 epithelial cells by preventing tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha- and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced IkappaB kinase (IKK) complex activation. Both agents inhibited the TNF-alpha- or TPA-induced expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 mRNA and protein, COX-2 promoter activity, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production. Overexpression of wild-type NF-kappaB-inducing kinase, IKKalpha, and IKKbeta led, respectively, to 3.5-, 2.6-, and 2.6-fold increases in COX-2 promoter activity, and these effects were inhibited by both compounds. GF-015 and GF-90 also prevented the TNF-alpha- and TPA-induced activation of IKK and NF-kappaB-specific DNA-protein binding activity. These results suggest that the inhibitory effect of GF-015 and GF-90 on TNF-alpha-induced COX-2 protein expression was caused by suppression of IKK activity and NF-kappaB activation in the COX-2 promoter, resulting in attenuation of COX-2 gene expression and PGE2 production.

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