The present study examined the predictions the Perceptual Assimilation Model in the context of naïve bilingual speakers while also considering whether the predictions of third language (L3) models of morphosyntax could be extended to L3 phonology. In particular, it was asked whether several groups of Spanish-English bilinguals (constituting a fully combined design) would categorize sounds in two unknown languages, French and German, using their first language (L1) categories, second language (L2) categories, or a combination of both. 199 participants took part in the study, who made up 4 total groups: L1 English–L2 Spanish (n = 55), L1 Spanish–L2 English (n = 59), English monolingual (n = 59) and Spanish monolingual (n = 29). The participants completed a vowel categorization task, where they were asked to match four vowel sounds in French and German to their existing English and Spanish categories. The results of a series of Bayesian Multinomial regression models suggested that bilinguals categorize L3 vowels using both L1 and L2 categories according to the acoustics of the input. There was no evidence of a clear bias for either the L1 or L2 when an L3 vowel exists in both the L1 and L2. Additionally, the bilingual English participants differed from English monolinguals in the their categorization of new language sounds. These results have implications for both the PAM-L2 and L3 models, by showing that the language learners are not solely guided by their native language, and have access to both L1 and L2 categories when accounting for novel language sounds.

The present study investigates the interplay between proficiency and empathy in the development of second language (L2) prosody by analyzing the perception and processing of intonation in questions and statements in L2 Spanish. A total of 225 adult L2 Spanish learners (L1 English) from the Northeastern United States completed a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task in which they listened to four utterance types and categorized them as either questions or statements. We used Bayesian multilevel regression and Drift Diffusion modeling to analyze the 2AFC data as a function of proficiency level and empathy scores for each utterance type. We show that learner response accuracy and sensitivity to intonation is positively correlated with proficiency, and this association is affected by individual empathy levels in both response accuracy and sentence processing. Higher empathic individuals, in comparison with lower empathic individuals, appear to be more sensitive to intonation cues in the process of forming sound-meaning associations, though increased sensitivity does not necessarily imply increased processing speed. The results motivate the inclusion of measures of pragmatic skill, such as empathy, to better account for intonational meaning processing and sentence comprehension in second language acquisition.

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