-This paper presents a novel experimental method which uses a Virtual Reality (VR) headset, aiming to provide an alternative environment for the conduction of subjective assessments of daylit spaces. This method can overcome the difficulty of controlling the variation of luminous conditions, one of the main challenges in experimental studies using daylight, while its novelty lies in the implementation of physically-based renderings into an immersive virtual environment. The present work investigates the adequacy of the proposed method to evaluate five aspects of subjective perception of daylit spaces: the perceived pleasantness, interest, excitement, complexity and satisfaction with the amount of view in the space. To this end, experiments with 29 participants were conducted, to comparing the user's perception of a real daylit environment and its equivalent representation in VR and testing the effect of the display method on the participants' perceptual evaluations, reported physical symptoms, and their perceived presence in the virtual space. The results indicate a high level of perceptual accuracy, showing no significant differences between the real and virtual environments on the studied evaluations. In addition, there was a high level of perceived presence in the virtual environment and no significant effects on the participants' physical symptoms after the use of the VR headset. Following these findings, the presented experimental method in VR seems very promising for use as a surrogate to real environments in investigating the aforementioned five dimensions of perception in daylit spaces.

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Daylight provision to the indoor space is affected by different building elements that cannot be fully controlled by the users, such as the window size of a space. The dimensions of the fenestration not only affect the lighting levels, but they also affect how the space is perceived by its users. The present study examines three different window sizes via virtual reality, to study how they affect the perception of both a small and a large space at high latitudes. Additionally, two context scenarios (socializing and working), as well as three different sky types (overcast sky and clear skies with either high or low sun angle) were evaluated. The experimental study applied a mixed design with within-subjects and between-subjects factors. A total of 150 participants evaluated the scenes using a Likert-type scale to rate eight different subjective attributes. The statistical results showed that both window size and space type significantly affect the participants' spatial perception, as well as their satisfaction with the amount of outside view. Larger windows led to more positively evaluated spaces for all studied attributes. Moreover, a significant interaction was found between window size and type of space for the satisfaction with the amount of view in the space, indicating that the window size was dependent on the type of space in which the windows are located. Specifically, the window sizes were rated higher in the small space than in the large space for the evaluation of amount of view. The findings show that window size affects how people perceive a space, and additionally, that other spatial features, such as space type, affect window size preferences.

Urban green areas, such as parks, are becoming increasingly important in densifying cities. Urban parks encourage physical and social activity, recreation and relaxation, and thus eventually promote people’s well-being. The aim of the current study is to examine which urban park attributes influence the preferences of park users, in order to offer recommendations regarding how urban parks of quality can be designed. To elicit the preferences of park visitors we designed an online stated-choice experiment. Seven park attributes, in particular the number and composition of trees and the presence of benches, side paths, a playground, litter, and flowers, were manipulated in a virtual park. In an online stated-choice task, videos of these park alternatives were presented and the preferences of 697 participants were measured. It is found that especially the number of trees and the presence of flowerbeds, particularly with a diversity of flowers, influenced participants’ preferences. The presence of many benches and a playground were valued as well, but to a lesser extent. The presence of litter was found to be less troublesome than expected. Alternatives with all trees placed in one cluster were disliked. Moreover, significant standard deviations were found for the presence of side paths, a playground, and the absence of litter, which indicates that preference heterogeneity for these attributes exist. In a latent class analysis, two groups were identified, namely a Nature-loving group, who mainly valued the trees and the flowers, and an Amenity-appreciating group, who valued almost all attributes. It can be concluded that natural elements and a variety of flower species are important in an urban park, while facilities are evaluated differently by different groups of people. These findings may support park designers and policymakers in decision-making. Moreover, it illustrates the usefulness of creating a virtual park in environmental preference research.

As our living environment is becoming increasingly urbanized, this puts the livability, health, and quality of life in cities under pressure. Due to the urbanization process, urban green spaces are under threat of becoming scarce, while it is recognized that these green spaces can positively contribute to the subjective well-being of citizens. It is thus important to maximize the use and benefits derived from green spaces by designing them as positively experienced places. The aim of this research is to gain more empirical insights on the relationships between personal and park characteristics, park use behavior, sense of place, and park visitors’ long-term subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction). An online questionnaire was administered to participants in two medium-sized cities in The Netherlands, namely Eindhoven and ‘s-Hertogenbosch. Data were analyzed using a structural equation model. The results of this study show that the appreciation of facilities and the absence of disturbances positively influence the use and sense of place of a park. Furthermore, the findings show that sense of place has a positive influence on life satisfaction. The findings can be used by designers and policy-makers as guidelines to improve existing parks or to design new parks that support the subjective well-being of individuals in The Netherlands.