Livestock ownership may influence anaemia through complex and possibly contradictory mechanisms. In this study, we aimed to determine the association of household livestock ownership with anaemia among women aged 15–49 years and children aged 6–59 months in Ghana and to examine the contribution of animal source foods (ASFs) to consumption patterns as a potential mechanism mediating this association. We analysed data on 4,441 women and 2,735 children from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey and 16,772 households from the Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6. Haemoglobin measurements were used to define anaemia (non‐pregnant women: <120 g/L; children: <110 g/L). Child‐ and household‐level ASF consumption data were collected from 24‐hour food group intake and food consumption and expenditure surveys, respectively. In multiple logistic regression models, household livestock ownership was associated with anaemia among children (OR, 95% CI: 1.5 [1.1, 2.0]), but not women (1.0 [0.83, 1.2]). Household ownership of chickens was associated with higher odds of anaemia among children (1.6 [1.2, 2.2]), but ownership of other animal species was not associated with anaemia among women or children. In path analyses, we observed no evidence of mediation of the association of household livestock ownership with child anaemia by ASF consumption. Ownership of livestock likely has limited importance for consumption of ASFs among young children in Ghana and may in fact place children at an increased risk of anaemia. Further research is needed to elucidate if and how pathogen exposure associated with livestock rearing may underlie this increased risk of anaemia.

Livestock production and Animal-Source Foods (ASFs) like meat, milk, and eggs are excellent sources of essential micronutrients, including iron and zinc. There is evidence that encouraging increased access to and consumption of these ASFs may either positively or negatively impact anemia, or have no nutritional effects. Drawing upon first-hand experiences in Ghana, this study sought to: (1) identify the main motivations for raising livestock in Ghana; (2) describe the major barriers to consuming ASFs, especially among women of reproductive age (WRA); and (3) explore the feasibility of different livestock-centered interventions to reduce anemia. Key informant interviews and focus group discussions were held with relevant stakeholders at different geographical scales - the national, regional, district, and community levels. The results suggest that livestock enable savings, allow resource-poor households to accumulate assets, and help finance planned and unplanned expenditures (e.g., school fees and illness). Due to these multiple and often pressing uses, direct consumption of home-reared ASFs is not a major priority, especially for poor households. Even when ASFs are consumed, intra-household allocation does not favor women and adolescent girls, demographic groups with particularly high micronutrient requirements. The study participants discussed possible interventions to address these challenges, including (1) increasing livestock ownership through in-kind credit; (2) encouraging nutrition-related behavior change; (3) improving livestock housing; and (4) hatchery management. The paper discusses these interventions based upon potential acceptance, feasibility, cost effectiveness, and sustainability in the Ghanaian context.

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Little evidence exists concerning perceptions of anaemia in Ghanaian communities, which limits understanding of how to potentially improve health in settings with high anaemia prevalence. We explored lay perceptions of anaemia to understand local knowledge and beliefs and to provide an opportunity to inform interventions. A cross-sectional, qualitative study was conducted in selected communities in three regions of Ghana with high prevalence of anaemia. Forty-eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with adolescent girls, adult women of reproductive age and adult men (16 FGDs for each demographic group). Participants across the three demographic groups generally described anaemia as inadequate blood in the body and reported that poor diet, heat, alcohol intake, physiological factors and diseases such as malaria were the main causes of anaemia. Consequences of anaemia mentioned in the FGDs included dizziness, weight loss, loss of appetite and weakness.Prevention of anaemia was perceived to result from improved diet, avoidance of exposure to heat and improved sanitation to avoid diseases. The findings suggest that despite areas of convergence between lay and biomedical knowledge on the causes, consequences and prevention of anaemia, the burden of anaemia remains high in the study regions. This highlights a disconnect between local knowledge of anaemia and the health and nutrition behaviours needed to reduce its incidence.Effective interventions can be developed with and for communities that build upon existing knowledge while filling remaining knowledge gaps or misconceptions. K E Y W O R D S adolescent girls, anaemia, community, knowledge, qualitative methods, women of childbearing age 1 | INTRODUCTION With a global prevalence of approximately 33%, anaemia is a ubiquitous public health problem-with adolescent girls and women of reproductive age (WRA) having the highest burden (Global Nutrition Report, 2020; World Health Organization [WHO], 2015). The majority of high-risk populations are found in low-and middle-income countries (Kassebaum et al., 2014).

This study determined the effects of feed supplementation during the postpartum period on the weight gain, milk yield, blood profiles and reproductive performance of Sanga and Friesian-Sanga cows grazing on natural pasture. 20 Sanga and 20 Friesian-Sanga cows were randomly allocated either to serve as a control on grazing only or to be supplemented with 2.5 kg of concentrate a day for 10 weeks during the dry season. Each week, all cows were weighed and scored for body condition. Partial milk yield of cows was determined daily. Plasma concentrations of blood metabolites were assessed fortnightly from weeks 1 to 10 postpartum. Resumption of postpartum ovarian activity was determined by measuring progesterone concentration in the plasma from weeks 1 to 10. Supplemented cows had a better body condition score (6.2 versus 5.8; P < 0.05) and higher partial milk yield (1.94 versus 1.55 L/day; P < 0.01) than non-supplemented cows. Sanga cows had a better body condition score (6.2 versus 5.8; P < 0.05) but lower milk yield (1.58 versus 1.92 L/day; P < 0.01) than the Friesian-Sanga crossbreds. Total protein (P < 0.05) and albumin (P < 0.01) concentrations were higher in the supplemented than in the non-supplemented cows. Sanga cows recorded higher globulin (P < 0.05) and total cholesterol (P < 0.01) but lower albumin (P < 0.01) concentrations than Friesian-Sanga crossbred cows. Feed supplementation did not affect (P < 0.05) the interval from calving to resumption of ovarian activity, and the days to resumption of ovarian activity in the Sanga and Friesian-Sanga cows were also similar (P > 0.05). The results demonstrate the beneficial effects of feed supplementation in terms of improved body condition and metabolic status and increased milk yield.