A dispersed ownership system has widely disseminated shares and no dominant shareholder or group of shareholders. This is more commonly the share ownership pattern in the United States and the United Kingdom. A concentrated ownership system is more common in continental Europe. In this system one shareholder, family, or group of shareholders has majority or dominant control of companies. Different types of fraud are incentivized under each system. Dispersed ownership systems encourage earnings management, so executives benefit from short‐term performance measures. Concentrated control encourages appropriation of private benefits of control. Corporate governance is designed to protect shareholders' interests. Corporate ownerships systems have implications on the efficacy of governance techniques. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This research investigated the value added to middle school public education by pedagogically trained college students. An experimental design was employed in which 680 middle school pupils were randomly assigned to instructional groups. University arts and sciences students were put into two groups on the basis of those with formal teacher training and those without. Each student taught four lessons to his or her instructional group. Pupils were administered pre-and posttest measures on the content delivered in the four lessons and a reflection scale on lesson difficulty. Teachers' behaviors were recorded and scored independently by two trained observers. Results indicated that pupils' achievement was influenced by their perceptions of task difficulty and that teaching behaviors had a statistically significant influence on adjusted pupil achievement outcomes among students with formal pedagogical training. These results support the contention that pedagogical preparation of teachers adds value to middle school public education when measured in terms of pupil academic learning.

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