Intergroup encounters are common in nonhuman primates and can vary from affiliative to aggressive. We extracted data from the literature to test five different hypotheses: 1) where there are group size differences between opposing groups, whether the larger group is more likely to win an intergroup encounter than the smaller group; 2) whether the likelihood of a group engaging in aggressive intergroup encounters increases with group size; and 3-5) whether dominant, older individuals, and/or males are more likely to participate aggressively in intergroup encounters than subordinate, younger individuals and/or females. Our data set comprised 52 studies on 31 primate species (3 lemur species, 5 New World monkeys, 19 Old World monkeys, and 4 apes). We found that the larger group is more likely to win an encounter against a smaller group than vice versa. We found no significant relationship between group size and propensity to be aggressive during intergroup encounters. We found weak/no support for the effect of age, dominance rank, and sex on the frequency of aggression displayed toward outgroup individuals during intergroup encounters. Species-and population-specific differences in inter-and intragroup competition and in the degree of the unequal distribution of resources across group members may explain why age, dominance rank, and sex are not strong predictors of aggression during intergroup encounters.

Objectives Female bonobos (Pan paniscus) are characterized as highly affiliative and cooperative, but few studies have quantified the strength and stability of female intra‐sexual relationships or explored how variation in social relationships influences cooperation. We measure female social preferences, identify causes of variation in preferences, and test whether variation in social preferences predicts food sharing or coalitionary support. Methods Data were collected over 3 years from females in the Bompusa community at LuiKotale, DRC. We measured genetic relatedness and constructed social preference indices for party association, proximity, grooming, GG‐rubbing and aggression. We identified preferred social partners based on permutation tests and measured stability using Mantel tests. We used factor analysis to identify inter‐relationships between preference indices and used LMMs to test whether variation in social preferences was explained by relatedness, rank differences, having dependent young or co‐residency time. We used GLMMs to test whether variation in social preferences predicted food sharing or coalitionary support. Results All females had preferred non‐kin partners for proximity, grooming or GG‐rubbing, but only grooming preferences were stable across years. Association indices were higher among lactating females, and aggression was lower among females with longer co‐residency times. The factor analysis identified one factor, representing proximity and GG‐rubbing preferences, labeled behavioral coordination. Dyads with higher levels of behavioral coordination were more likely to share food. Conclusions Female bonobos exhibit stable, differentiated grooming relationships outside of kinship and philopatry. Females also exhibit flexible proximity and GG‐rubbing preferences that may facilitate cooperation with a wider range of social partners.

This study combined the analysis of fatty acids and stable isotopes of nitrogen and carbon to test the hypothesis that the pelagic food web of the south Catalan Sea has a wasp-waist structure supported by sardines Sardina pilchardus. If this hypothesis were correct, most predators would be expected to have stable isotope ratios and fatty acid profiles consistent with those derived from a sardine-based diet. However, this was true only for mackerel Scomber scomber, blue butterfish Stromateus fiatola, all sea-birds and oceanic loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. The values of the DHA/EPA index of neritic logger-head turtles and striped dolphins Stenella caeruleoalba were also consistent with a sardine/ squid diet, but their trophic positions were too high. On the other hand, the DHA/EPA index of most predatory fishes in- dicated that anchovies Engraulis encrasicolus and/or horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus were their main prey. Nevertheless, some amounts of low trophic level invertebrates were likely to be consumed by some predatory fishes, because their trophic positions where lower than expected from a fish-based diet only. The heterogeneous distribution of phytoplankton groups above and below the thermocline during the warm season is hypothesized to be the primary reason for this food web structure, although the strong reliance of some seabirds on sardines is the likely consequence of a massive consumption of discards from fishing boats. In short, there is little evidence for a wasp-waist structure based on sardine, which may explain why the populations of predators fluctuate less than the population of sardines

Intercommunity competition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) has been widely studied in eastern (P. t. schweinfurthii) and western (P. t. verus) communities. Both subspecies show hostility towards neighboring communities but differ in rates of lethal attacks and female involvement. However, relatively little is known about the territorial behavior of the two other subspecies, central (P. t. troglodytes) and Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (P. t. ellioti). Here, we present the first insights into intercommunity interactions of individuals of a community of central chimpanzees living in the Loango National Park in Gabon. The presence of individuals of neighboring communities in the Rekambo home range was assessed using 27 camera traps. Information was compiled on intergroup interactions recorded before (2005–2016) and after (January 2017–June 2019) the habituation of the community. Individuals from neighboring communities entered the core area, where nine out of 16 recorded intercommunity encounters occurred. Males were the main participants in territorial patrols and intercommunity aggressions. Females were part of all six territorial patrols recorded and dependent offspring participated in five patrols. Females were involved in intercommunity aggression in five out of twelve recorded encounters in which there was visual contact between communities. While the intercommunity encounter rate was lower than that reported across most other long-term chimpanzee sites, the annual intercommunity killing rate was among the highest. These results suggest that the frequency of lethal attacks at Loango is comparable to that reported for the eastern subspecies. In contrast, female involvement in intercommunity interactions mirrors that of the western subspecies.

No abstract