Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes depending on the environment. It has an influence on the adaptive potential to environmental change and the capability to adapt locally. Adaptation to environmental change happens at the population level, thereby contributing to genotypic and phenotypic variation within a species. Predation is an important ecological factor structuring communities and maintaining species diversity. Prey developed different strategies to reduce their vulnerability to predators by changing their behaviour, their morphology or their life history. Predator-induced life history responses in Daphnia have been investigated for decades, but intra-and inter-population variability was rarely addressed explicitly. We addressed this issue by conducting a common garden experiment with 24 clonal lines of European Daphnia galeata originating from four populations, each represented by six clonal lines. We recorded life history traits in the absence and presence of fish kairomones. Additionally, we looked at the shape of experimental individuals by conducting a geometric morphometric analysis, thus assessing predator-induced morphometric changes. Our data revealed high intraspecific phenotypic variation within and between four D. galeata populations, the potential to locally adapt to a vertebrate predator regime as well as an effect of the fish kairomones on morphology of D. galeata.
Ca2+ signaling in astrocytes is considered to be mainly mediated by metabotropic receptors linked to intracellular Ca2+ release. However, recent studies demonstrate a significant contribution of Ca2+ influx to spontaneous and evoked Ca2+ signaling in astrocytes, suggesting that Ca2+ influx might account for astrocytic Ca2+ signaling to a greater extent than previously thought. Here, we investigated AMPA-evoked Ca2+ influx into olfactory bulb astrocytes in mouse brain slices using Fluo-4 and GCaMP6s, respectively. Bath application of AMPA evoked Ca2+ transients in periglomerular astrocytes that persisted after neuronal transmitter release was inhibited by tetrodotoxin and bafilomycin A1. Withdrawal of external Ca2+ suppressed AMPA-evoked Ca2+ transients, whereas depletion of Ca2+ stores had no effect. Both Ca2+ transients and inward currents induced by AMPA receptor activation were partly reduced by Naspm, a blocker of Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors lacking the GluA2 subunit. Antibody staining revealed a strong expression of GluA1 and GluA4 and a weak expression of GluA2 in periglomerular astrocytes. Our results indicate that Naspm-sensitive, Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors contribute to Ca2+ signaling in periglomerular astrocytes in the olfactory bulb.
Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes depending on the environment. It has an influence on the adaptive potential to environmental change and the capability to adapt locally. Adaptation to environmental change happens at the population level, thereby contributing to genotypic and phenotypic variation within a species. Predation is an important ecological factor structuring communities and maintaining species diversity. Prey developed different strategies to reduce their vulnerability to predators by changing their behavior, their morphology or their life history. Predator-induced life history responses in Daphnia have been investigated for decades, but intra population variability was rarely addressed explicitly. We addressed this issue by conducting a common garden experiment with four EuropeanDaphnia galeata populations, each represented by six genotypes. We recorded life history traits in the absence and presence of fish kairomones. Additionally, we looked at the shape of experimental individuals by conducting a geometric morphometric analysis, thus assessing predator-induced morphometric changes. Our data revealed high intraspecific phenotypic variation within and between all four D. galeata populations, the potential to locally adapt to a vertebrate predator regime as well as an effect of the fish kairomones on morphology of D. galeata. 10 Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes depending on 11 the environment. It has an influence on the adaptive potential to environmental change and 12 the capability to adapt locally. Adaptation to environmental change happens at the population 13 level, thereby contributing to genotypic and phenotypic variation within a species. Predation is 14 an important ecological factor structuring communities and maintaining species diversity. Prey 81 conclusions based on single genotypes. The relative importance of the intra and inter-82 population variation was thus rarely measured. In our experimental design we specifically 83 considered the population level by using six genotypes per population. All of our genotypes 84 stem from lakes with different fish predation pressures, and we therefore expect the 85 populations to be locally adapted, which translates into a population specific response. The 86 ability of Daphnia to locally adapt to different stressors has been demonstrated e.g. for 87 vertebrate predators (Boersma et al. 1998;Cousyn et al. 2001;Declerck and Weber 2003) and 88 pesticides . 90In the present study, we assess the intraspecific phenotypic variation among four (Table S1)
Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes depending on the environment. It has an influence on the adaptive potential to environmental change and the capability to adapt locally. Adaptation to environmental change happens at the population level, thereby contributing to genotypic and phenotypic variation within a species. Predation is an important ecological factor structuring communities and maintaining species diversity. Prey developed different strategies to reduce their vulnerability to predators by changing their behavior, their morphology or their life history. Predator-induced life history responses in Daphnia have been investigated for decades, but intra population variability was rarely addressed explicitly. We addressed this issue by conducting a common garden experiment with four EuropeanDaphnia galeata populations, each represented by six genotypes. We recorded life history traits in the absence and presence of fish kairomones. Additionally, we looked at the shape of experimental individuals by conducting a geometric morphometric analysis, thus assessing predator-induced morphometric changes. Our data revealed high intraspecific phenotypic variation within and between all four D. galeata populations, the potential to locally adapt to a vertebrate predator regime as well as an effect of the fish kairomones on morphology of D. galeata. 10 Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes depending on 11 the environment. It has an influence on the adaptive potential to environmental change and 12 the capability to adapt locally. Adaptation to environmental change happens at the population 13 level, thereby contributing to genotypic and phenotypic variation within a species. Predation is 14 an important ecological factor structuring communities and maintaining species diversity. Prey 81 conclusions based on single genotypes. The relative importance of the intra and inter-82 population variation was thus rarely measured. In our experimental design we specifically 83 considered the population level by using six genotypes per population. All of our genotypes 84 stem from lakes with different fish predation pressures, and we therefore expect the 85 populations to be locally adapted, which translates into a population specific response. The 86 ability of Daphnia to locally adapt to different stressors has been demonstrated e.g. for 87 vertebrate predators (Boersma et al. 1998;Cousyn et al. 2001;Declerck and Weber 2003) and 88 pesticides . 90In the present study, we assess the intraspecific phenotypic variation among four (Table S1)
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