No abstract

Elevation data are fundamental to many applications, especially in geosciences. The latest global elevation data contains forest and building artifacts that limit its usefulness for applications that require precise terrain heights, in particular flood simulation. Here, we use machine learning to remove buildings and forests from the Copernicus Digital Elevation Model to produce, for the first time, a global map of elevation with buildings and forests removed at 1 arc second (∽30m) grid spacing. We train our correction algorithm on a unique set of reference elevation data from 12 countries, covering a wide range of climate zones and urban extents. Hence, this approach has much wider applicability compared to previous DEMs trained on data from a single country. Our method reduces mean absolute vertical error in built-up areas from 1.61m to 1.12m, and in forests from 5.15m to 2.88m. The new elevation map is more accurate than existing global elevation maps and will strengthen applications and models where high quality global terrain information is required.

Open-access global Digital Elevation Models (DEM) have been crucial in enabling flood studies in data-sparse areas. Poor resolution (>30 m), significant vertical errors and the fact that these DEMs are over a decade old continue to hamper our ability to accurately estimate flood hazard. The limited availability of high-accuracy DEMs dictate that dated open-access global DEMs are still used extensively in flood models, particularly in datasparse areas. Nevertheless, high-accuracy DEMs have been found to give better flood estimations, and thus can be considered a 'must-have' for any flood model. A highaccuracy open-access global DEM is not imminent, meaning that editing or stochastic simulation of existing DEM data will remain the primary means of improving flood simulation. This article provides an overview of errors in some of the most widely used DEM data sets, along with the current advances in reducing them via the creation of new DEMs, editing DEMs and stochastic simulation of DEMs. We focus on a geostatistical approach to stochastically simulate floodplain DEMs from several open-access global DEMs based on the spatial error structure. This DEM simulation approach enables an ensemble of plausible DEMs to be created, thus avoiding the spurious precision of using a single DEM and enabling the generation of probabilistic flood maps. Despite this encouraging step, an imprecise and outdated global DEM is still being used to simulate elevation. To fundamentally improve flood estimations, particularly in rapidly changing developing regions, a high-accuracy open-access global DEM is urgently needed, which in turn can be used in DEM simulation.

Digital elevation models (DEMs) provide fundamental depictions of the three-dimensional shape of the Earth’s surface and are useful to a wide range of disciplines. Ideally, DEMs record the interface between the atmosphere and the lithosphere using a discrete two-dimensional grid, with complexities introduced by the intervening hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, and anthroposphere. The treatment of DEM surfaces, affected by these intervening spheres, depends on their intended use, and the characteristics of the sensors that were used to create them. DEM is a general term, and more specific terms such as digital surface model (DSM) or digital terrain model (DTM) record the treatment of the intermediate surfaces. Several global DEMs generated with optical (visible and near-infrared) sensors and synthetic aperture radar (SAR), as well as single/multi-beam sonars and products of satellite altimetry, share the common characteristic of a georectified, gridded storage structure. Nevertheless, not all DEMs share the same vertical datum, not all use the same convention for the area on the ground represented by each pixel in the DEM, and some of them have variable data spacings depending on the latitude. This paper highlights the importance of knowing, understanding and reflecting on the sensor and DEM characteristics and consolidates terminology and definitions of key concepts to facilitate a common understanding among the growing community of DEM users, who do not necessarily share the same background.

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission has long been used as a source topographic information for flood hazard models, especially in data‐sparse areas. Error corrected versions have been produced, culminating in the latest global error reduced digital elevation model (DEM)—the Multi‐Error‐Removed‐Improved‐Terrain (MERIT) DEM. This study investigates the spatial error structure of MERIT and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, before simulating plausible versions of the DEMs using fitted semivariograms. By simulating multiple DEMs, we allow modelers to explore the impact of topographic uncertainty on hazard assessment even in data‐sparse locations where typically only one DEM is currently used. We demonstrate this for a flood model in the Mekong Delta and a catchment in Fiji using deterministic DEMs and DEM ensembles simulated using our approach. By running an ensemble of simulated DEMs we avoid the spurious precision of using a single DEM in a deterministic simulation. We conclude that using an ensemble of the MERIT DEM simulated using semivariograms by land cover class gives inundation estimates closer to a light detection and ranging‐based benchmark. This study is the first to analyze the spatial error structure of the MERIT DEM and the first to simulate DEMs and apply these to flood models at this scale. The research workflow is available via an R package called DEMsimulation.