Classical galactosemia (CG) is an inborn error of galactose metabolism. Evidence-based guidelines for the treatment and follow-up of CG are currently lacking, and treatment and follow-up have been demonstrated to vary worldwide. To provide patients around the world the same state-of-the-art in care, members of The Galactosemia Network (GalNet) developed an evidence-based and internationally applicable guideline for the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of CG. The guideline was developed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system. A systematic review of the literature was performed, after key questions were formulated during an initial GalNet meeting. The first author and one of the working group experts conducted data-extraction. All experts were involved in data-extraction. Quality of the body of evidence was evaluated and recommendations were formulated. Whenever possible recommendations were evidence-based, if not they were based on expert opinion. Consensus was reached by multiple conference calls, consensus rounds via e-mail and a final consensus meeting. Recommendations addressing diagnosis, dietary treatment, biochemical monitoring, and follow-up of clinical complications were formulated. For all recommendations but one, full consensus was reached. A 93 % consensus was reached on the recommendation addressing age at start of bone density screening. During the development of this guideline, gaps of knowledge were identified in most fields of interest, foremost in the fields of treatment and follow-up.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10545-016-9990-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background: Adipose-derived cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor ␣, may contribute to the inflammation that occurs in the metabolic syndrome. We investigated the effects of inhibition of tumor necrosis factor ␣ with etanercept in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Methods: Fifty-six subjects with the metabolic syndrome were randomized to administration of either etanercept or identical placebo, 50 mg subcutaneously once a week for 4 weeks. The C-reactive protein level was the primary end point. Effects on other inflammatory markers (including fibrinogen, interleukin 6, and adiponectin), insulin sensitivity, lipid levels, and body composition were also determined. Results: Baseline characteristics were similar between the groups. Two subjects dropped out of each group, and etanercept was well tolerated throughout the study. The C-reactive protein levels decreased significantly in the treated compared with the placebo group (−2.4±0.4 vs 0.5±0.7 mg/L; PϽ.001). Adiponectin levels rose significantly in the etanercept group compared with the placebo group (0.8±0.4 vs −0.3±0.3 µg/mL; P=.03). Fibrinogen levels decreased (−68±16 vs −2±31 mg/dL [−2.0±0.47 vs −0.06±0.91 µmol/L]; P=.04) and interleukin 6 levels tended to decrease (−1.2±0.8 vs 0.5±0.5 ng/L; P=.07) in the etanercept-treated subjects compared with placebo, respectively. No changes occurred in body composition parameters or insulin sensitivity, but high-density lipoprotein levels tended to decrease in the etanercept group (−1±1 vs 2±1 mg/dL [−0.03±0.03 vs 0.05±0.03 mmol/L]; P=.06) compared with the placebo group. Conclusions: Etanercept reduces C-reactive protein levels and tends to improve other inflammatory cardiovascular risk indexes in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Etanercept may interrupt the inflammatory cascade that occurs with abdominal obesity. Further, longer-term studies are needed to determine the effects of tumor necrosis factor ␣ inhibition on cardiovascular disease in patients with the metabolic syndrome.

Common inborn errors of metabolism treated by low natural protein diets [amino acid (AA) disorders, organic acidemias and urea cycle disorders] are responsible for a collection of diverse clinical symptoms, each condition presenting at different ages with variable severity. Precursor-free or essential l-AAs are important in all these conditions. Optimal long-term outcome depends on early diagnosis and good metabolic control, but because of the rarity and severity of conditions, randomized controlled trials are scarce. In all of these disorders, it is commonly described that dietary adherence deteriorates from the age of 10 years onwards, at least in part representing the transition of responsibility from the principal caregivers to the patients. However, patients may have particular difficulties in managing the complexity of their treatment because of the impact of the condition on their neuropsychological profile. There are little data about their ability to self-manage their own diet or the success of any formal educational programs that may have been implemented. Trials conducted in non-phenylketonuria (PKU) patients are rare, and the development of specialist l-AAs for non-PKU AA disorders has usually shadowed that of PKU. There remains much work to be done in refining dietary treatments for all conditions and gaining acceptable dietary adherence and concordance, which is crucial for an optimal outcome.

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