No abstract

Studies have shown the potential of rhizobia and associated micronutrients to enhance symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes. Tens of millions of smallholder farmers, however, farm on mountain hillsides in highly variable soil and microenvironments, with different crop rotations, inputs and cultural practices. Here, on the terraces of the Nepalese Himalayas, we evaluated rhizobium inoculants (local, exotic), micronutrients (molybdenum, boron) and their combinations as technologies for smallholder farmers under highly variable microenvironments and traditional practices. The study was conducted as a series of participatory on-farm trials with 39 terrace farmers in two mid-hill districts of Nepal (Dhading, Kaski) from 2015 to 2017. Plots were measured for relevant agronomic traits. As expected, when comparing treatment plots with adjacent control plots within each farm, the results demonstrated tremendous farm-to-farm variability for nodulation, vegetative biomass, shoot nitrogen content, grain yield, and grain N content. Despite the variation observed, the data showed that the number of farms that showed yield increases from the rhizobium interventions, compared to those that suffered yield losses, was generally 2:1. We discuss potential experimental and socio-agronomic reasons for the variable results, including rainfall, which appeared critical. The results demonstrate the promise of rhizobium interventions for hillside smallholder farmers, even in a highly variable context.

No abstract

Millions of vulnerable smallholder farmers around the world cultivate crops on narrow hillside terraces and suffer from inadequate flat growing areas to support their families. A significant amount of surface area on terraces is actually vertical-specifically the underutilized terrace walls (risers). Some indigenous farmers in Nepal have been observed to cultivate wall-climbing and walldescending crops, sown at the base or top edge of the walls, respectively, but these have not been evaluated for their economic benefits and adoption potential. Participatory on-farm trials were conducted on 280 terrace farms in two districts of Nepal (Kaski, Dhading) for two cropping seasons (2015)(2016). Three wall-climbing crops (yam in sacks, chayote squash, pumpkin) and four walldescending crops (ricebean, cowpea, horsegram, blackgram) were each grown by 20 farmers per crop per site and evaluated for potential net economic returns and perceptions of all 280 participating women farmers based on five adoption criteria. Here, we show, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, that terrace walls or risers can be intensified with suitable wall-climbing and walldescending crops. All three wall-climbing crops were productive, with potential net economic returns ranging from US $27 per plant for chayote squash, $10/plant for pumpkin, and $2/plant for yam. Similarly, all four wall-descending crops were productive, with potential net economic returns ranging from US $9-$15 per 100 m of wall edge. All the wall crops received good-to-excellent ratings (typically > 8/10) by women farmers for simplicity, compatibility, affordability, potential economic returns, and willingness to continue. In terms of long-term adoption, yam, pumpkin, ricebean, and cowpea were ranked the highest, with > 90% farmers willing to continue each practice. We discuss the potential and constraints of transferring these terrace-intensifying strategies globally.

The practice of witchcraft like shamanism transcends the realms of religion, age and country. When Shakespeare wrote Macbeth in (1606), witchcraft was a topic of considerable importance. The witches in "Macbeth" had the power to see into the future and create storms whereas the Nepali shamans acted as a visible link to the invisible future. The paper tries to assess the witches as mythological construction and an amalgamation of ancient folkloric elements. One such mythical and folkloric element is their unique art of prophesying. Like the prophecies of the witches the predictions of the shamans are clothed with metaphorical overtones. Besides, a shaman and a witch is affiliated to the mystical world of enchantment as they conjure such mystical forces for strength and power acting as intermediaries between the human and the spirit world. The paper would not only highlight the homogeneity of folklore across cultures but it would also probe into the universality in ideas of the enchanting and superior truths personified by the witches and shamans.