A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self-and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study I were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.This article describes a new model of attachment styles in adulthood. Drawing on the theory of Bowlby (1973, 1980, 1982a), two types of internal working models are postulatedan internal model of the self and an internal model of others. Each internal model can be dichotomized as positive or negative to yield four theoretical attachment styles. This article summarizes the relevant childhood attachment literature, reviews recent work on adult attachment, describes the new model, and then presents two empirical studies designed to validate the proposed model.

This article describes a new instrument, the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP), which measures distress arising from interpersonal sources. The IIP meets the need for an easily administered self-report inventory that describes the types of interpersonal problems that people experience and the level of distress associated with them before, during, and after psychotherapy. Two studies are reported. In Study 1, psychometric data are presented for 103 patients who were tested at the beginning and end of a waiting period before they began brief dynamic psychotherapy. On both occasions, a factor analysis yielded the same six subscales; these scales showed high internal consistency and high test-retest reliability. Study 2 demonstrated the instrument's sensitivity to clinical change. In this study, a subset of patients was tested before, during, and after 20 sessions of psychotherapy. Their improvement on the IIP agreed well with all other measures of their improvement, including those generated by the therapist and by an independent evaluator. Although the HP and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) were both sensitive to change during the first 10 sessions, only the IIP was sensitive to change in the second 10 sessions. Furthermore, the difference between patient distress on the IIP and on the SCL-90-R successfully discriminated between patients who completed the full treatment and those who did not. Finally, some kinds of problems were more amenable to treatment than others. Problems of assertiveness, for example, were discussed more often and improved more readily than problems of intimacy. This article describes the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP), a new measure designed to help patients and therapists identify interpersonal sources of distress that are often the focus of psychotherapy. Although major advances have occurred in measuring interpersonal behaviors, traits, and styles (e.g., Benjamin, 1974Benjamin, , 1986Kiesler, 1983;Wiggins, 1979), there is still a need for an easily administered self-report inventory that describes the types of interpersonal problems that people experience.

Circumplex models have organized interpersonal behavior along 2 orthogonal dimensions--communion (which emphasizes connection between people) and agency (which emphasizes one person's influence over the other). However, many empirical studies have disconfirmed certain predictions from these models. We therefore revised the model in 4 ways that highlight interpersonal motives. In our revision: (a) the negative pole of communion is indifference, not hostility; (b) a given behavior invites (not evokes) a desired reaction from the partner; (c) the complement of a behavior is a reaction that would satisfy the motive behind that behavior; (d) noncomplementary reactions induce negative affect. If the motive is unclear, the meaning of the behavior is ambiguous. This ambiguity helps explain failures in social support, miscommunications in everyday life, and features of most personality disorders. The model emphasizes measurable individual differences: Reactions that are complementary for one person need not be complementary for another.

An interpersonal perspective on psychopathology poses characteristic questions: What do people want from interpersonal interactions? How do they succeed or fail in satisfying those wants? How are interpersonal processes related to the person's self-image? How are the symptoms and signs of disorder related to unfulfilled interpersonal goals and motives?Interpersonal Foundations of Psychopathology proposes that psychopathology is closely connected to interpersonal processes. In order to treat these disorders successfully, one must first understand the person's typical interpersonal interactions. This book examines findings from developmental, social and personality psychology and organizes those findings into an interpersonal approach. The resulting approach is integrative. Like the cognitive-behavioral approach, it emphasizes objectively observable behavior. Like the psychodynamic approach, it considers interpersonal motivation, conflict, and defense. Like the humanistic approach, it emphasizes the self, relationships, communication, empathy, and support. Using this perspective, the author demonstrates how communal and agentic motives help clarify most personality disorders and many Axis I disorders. This engaging book shows the importance of social processes in many disorders and, in doing so, exposes interpersonal subtleties that are required in treatment. It will be an illuminating resource for students of clinical psychology as well as professional psychologists and researchers. Readers will be richly rewarded with a fuller understanding of interpersonal processes and their role in personality, emotion, and psychopathology.

The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP) has been used to identify dysfunctional patterns in interpersonal interactions. Interpersonal problems can be organized in two dimensions, and the two-dimensional space can be divided into eight equal sectors (octants). Subscales of the IIP describe each of these octants. The instrument has been used to identify (a) interpersonal problems that are discussed most often in a brief dynamic psychotherapy and (b) problems that are treated most easily. The results show that problems in the "exploitable" octant improve most frequently, whereas problems in the "dominating," "vindictive," and "cold" octants do not improve as readily. Attachment styles in adulthood were examined (following a model proposed by Bowlby), and different attachment styles were found to correspond to different types of interpersonal problems. Finally, these variables were related to the ability to describe other people clearly. The article also discusses implications for brief dynamic psychotherapy.