Trepanation is a long-lasting ancient practice found around the world with diverse motivations. However, the distribution and motivation of intentional trepanation in China remain unclear. This study presents one of the earliest trepanations on a male adult individual who is unearthed from the Shuanghuaishu site in Gongyi, Henan, dating back to the late Yangshao cultural period (3500-2900 BC). The macroscopic and microscopic observation, alongside with micro-CT scan, are conducted to further evaluate the conditions on the edges of the perforation and intracranial situation. The oval perforation is located on the occipital bone, and neither fracture nor apparent healing signs are observed on the margins. Archeological evidences and simulated experiment indicate that the trepanation could be conducted by drilling the tables of the skull with a V-bladed stone tool. In view of the location of the perforation and the limited details on the edges, the motivation behind the trepanation could be due to the medical treatment of trauma on the occipital bone or a postmortem ritual. The analysis of the early trepanation along the Yellow River Basin provides further evidence on the ancient human behavior and enriches our understanding of the origin and distribution of trepanation in Neolithic China.

In bioarchaeology, cranial trauma studies generally have focused on the frequency in the population to explore violence within or between society. They focus less on further discussion of the consequences and interactions of the injured individual with the surrounding. In this study, macroscopic observation and computed tomography scans (endocast reconstruction) were used to explore a special cranium in the Sampula site of northwest China. The model of bioarchaeology of care (BoC) was used to further analyse the individual's disability experience, related health care and the broader social meaning of caring behaviour. The results showed that the individual numbered Sampula I M2:103 was an adult male who suffered severe antemortem cranial trauma that led to brain injury. Short‐term health care involving wound treatment and nutritional support, as well as long‐term assistance in social and rehabilitation, was available in the Sampula Iron Age society. Although there were limitations to the analysis, the individual's ability to survive in the Iron Age was a testament to those who cared for him, as well as the level of care and medicinal knowledge in this society. The BoC allowed for a more human‐centred approach to understanding the lives of those in the past, and its application can provide more insight into past societies, cultures, groups and individual identity.

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Objectives: This study analyzes craniofacial shape variation in the Hehuang region of Northwest China within a population genetic framework, and takes a diachronic approach to explore the relationship betwee cultural discontinuity and biological continuity/discontinuity in the Hehuang region during the middle to late Holocene. Materials and methods:The sample comprises 76 adult skulls from five archaeological sites, ranging from 4,500 to 1,530 BP. 3D geometric morphometrics, multivariate statistics, quantitative evolutionary genetic and biodistance analyses were performed to study the diachronic variation in craniofacial morphology. Analyses were performed on two cranial modules: the face and the cranial vault, across three major diachronic groups representing the late Neolithic (LNA), the Bronze Age (BA), and the Han-Jin dynasty (HD).Results: Average regional F ST for both cranial modules was low, indicating relatively greater variation within diachronic groups than among them. While the LNA and BA groups did not show any significant differences in facial and vault shape, significant craniofacial shape changes were detected between the BA and HD groups. Discussion: The consistent craniofacial morphology during the LNA and the BA, and the shift in morphology between the BA and the HD indicates that cultural discontinuity does not always coincide with biological discontinuity. The Hehuang population evolved in situ with few changes, despite cultural and dietary changes, until the HD when migrations from the Central Plains are associated with extra-local gene flow to the area. K E Y W O R D S 3D geometric morphometrics, Hehuang region, population history, skull morphology

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