In this article we discuss the implications of symbolic asymmetry for feminist practice and feminist psychology. In the first part, we present the theoretical framework in which the concept developed, as well as some of the studies that supported its relevance for gender studies. We also present an insight into the historical and social context in which research on symbolic asymmetry was conducted in order to show the relationship between gender ideology and social circumstances, as well as the role of feminist research in deconstructing dominant discourses on gender and prevalent manifestations of anti-feminism. In the second part, we conclude by situating the view of men as individuals and women as a sexed category in the emergence of modern discourses on gender, and argue in favour of the usefulness of an historical approach for feminist psychology. SYMBOLIC ASYMMETRY IN GENDER RELATIONSResearch on symbolic asymmetry in gender representations developed out of the debate on social identity and inter-group relations that took place in social psychology in the 1980s. By then, several authors were questioning the role attributed to motivational factors such as the search for positive social identity as an explanation for in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). Following Billig's assertion that the concept of positive social identity could only be acceptable as a product of ideology and not as an individual process (Billig, 1976), alternative levels of explanation were considered (Doise, 1986(Doise, , 1988, such as differences in power between groups (Deschamps, Feminism & Psychology

This paper develops a hypothesis concerning the conscientization of social cryptomnesia, claiming that it is possible to reduce the rejection of minorities by reminding the population that a certain value has been promoted by a certain minority. Participants (N = 93) first reported their attitudes toward women’s rights and feminist movements. They were then confronted with their higher appreciation of women’s rights over feminists (social cryptomnesia) and blamed for it (conscientization) in a more versus less threatening manner. Results indicated that conscientization can be effective not only in inducing a more positive attitude toward feminists, but also in decreasing hostile sexism when the threat is lower. Implications for minority influence research are discussed.

This article presents a study that sought to identify the gender dynamics prevailing in a health-related context of tokenism ‐ nursing ‐ in which the members of a dominant group in society ‐ men ‐ are proportionally scarce. Specifically, this study aimed to consider how men experience their integration into a feminized profession. Furthermore, the individual experiences and professional dynamics were placed in perspective with the results of other studies focusing on male populations in high-status professions, in particular medicine, to analyse the intersectionality of status and power. This study involved individual, semi-structured interviews with twelve male nurses, aged between 40 and 58 years, from across the six existing nursing specialties in Portugal. Analysis of the results, obtained through the Alceste software and thematic study carried out according to the social constructionist perspective in gender studies, indicates that tokenism dynamics interweave a double power asymmetry: the professional asymmetry between male doctors and male nurses, and the gender symbolic asymmetry between men and women. In the nursing profession, this double asymmetry proves beneficial to male nurses.

Despite a progressive increase in the number of women in medicine, gender inequalities remain. This article presents a study analyzing the gender dynamics of tokenism in the medical field in Portugal, through the experiences of male specialists in female areas and female specialists in male areas and through their strategies for coping with such situations.We conducted individual, semi-structured interviews with nine female doctors and eight male doctors aged between 32 and 62 years old. Results show the links between tokenism dynamics and gender asymmetry in medicine, putting female tokens at a disadvantage in relation to male tokens. Token positions occasionally produce gender arrangements but, all things considered, do not transform female and male positions either in the medical field or in the private sphere. We conclude that tokenism contributes to maintaining the gender social order.

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