There is increasing attention being paid to metallic nanoparticles because of their intensive applications in different areas of science such as medicine, chemistry, agriculture, and biotechnology. In addition, there has been growing interest in using environmentally friendly methods of synthesizing nanoparticles without making or using substances risky to the environment and human health. Biological methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles have been considered as possible ecofriendly alternatives to chemical synthesis. In the present study, biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) using marshmallow flower (Althaea officinalis L.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), and pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.) leaf extracts is reported for the first time.Copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) were formed by reduction of CuCl 2 with L-ascorbic acid. The antibacterial and antifungal effects of SNPs and CuNPs in comparison with silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) and copper chloride (CuCl 2 ) (respective nanoparticle constrictive salts) and synthetic antibiotics and fungicides were studied. Fungi (A. flavus and P. chrysogenum) and bacteria (E. coli and S. aureus) showed clear hypersensitivity to silver and copper nanoparticles, and the effects of SNPs were more notable than those of CuNPs. Data analysis showed that copper chloride and silver nitrate had a lower inhibitory effect in their nanoparticles, especially against the tested fungi.

IntroductionBaculoviruses are enveloped viruses that have doublestranded, circular DNA genomes ranging in size from 80 to 180 kbp (1,2). Baculoviruses have been isolated from more than 600 insect species belonging to the orders of Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Thysanura, and Trichoptera (3). The most notable characteristic of baculoviruses is the occlusion body (OB). The occlusion body is a crystalline matrix composed of a protein called polyhedrin, which provides protection to the virions in the environment against proteolytic and chitinolytic enzymes in the decomposing larvae and spreads infection among insects (4,5). Baculoviruses have been taxonomically divided based on their OB morphology into nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) and granuloviruses (GVs), forming polyhedra and granula, respectively (6). In the NPV, the OB ranges in size from 0.4 to 5 µm in diameter and contains several virions (7,8). The OBs of NPVs are most easily seen under light microscope due to their larger size and their light refractory polyhedral structure. The OBs of GVs, called granula, appear as dark granules and are comparatively more difficult to resolve under light microscope. They are ovoid-shaped and about 500 nm long and 20 nm wide (8,9).The family Baculoviridae is divided into 4 genera according to common biological and structural characteristics and patterns of host associations: Alphabaculovirus, which includes lepidopteran-specific baculoviruses and is subdivided into Group I or Group II based on the phylogenetic analysis of the polyhedrin genes from different baculoviruses; Betabaculovirus, comprising lepidopteran-specific granuloviruses; Gammabaculovirus, which includes hymenopteran-specific baculoviruses; and finally Deltabaculovirus, which contains dipteran-specific baculoviruses (4,10,11).Malacosoma neustria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), known as the European tent caterpillar, is an important defoliator of various fruit trees such as apple, pear, and plum; wild and ornamental trees and shrubs, including oak and rose species, oleaster, sea buckthorn, barberry, elm trees, willow, poplar, and aspen; and birch, particularly in eastern and central Turkey (12)(13)(14). The caterpillars first eat the buds and then leaves of the trees. During some years their population reaches such high numbers that they leave the trees completely leafless. Factors such as weather conditions and natural enemies including predators, parasitoids, and pathogenic microorganisms have historically been important regulatory elements in the population cycles of this insect.The key microbial pathogens of this insect include NPVs (15). The presence of NPVs in M. neustria was reported by several authors (16-31). In 2009, Demir et al.

IntroductionMalacosoma species are very common in Turkey and cause extensive economic losses in a number of plants (Doğanlar, 1975). One of these species, Malacosoma americanum (Fabricius, 1793) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), the eastern tent caterpillar, is a pest native to North America (Stene, 1914). The presence of M. americanum has not been reported in Turkey until now, when we detected it in Gümüşhane, Turkey. However, with the great importation of indoor plants to Turkey, it is possible that this insect was introduced in this way.M. americanum is particularly injurious to apple, cherry, and other fruit trees but can also be destructive to other deciduous trees (Leathers and Gupta, 1993). Furthermore, its caterpillars induce mare reproductive loss syndrome, which causes early fetal losses and late-term abortion in horses (Webb et al., 2004). Control of this pest is difficult, largely because of its congregation behavior. Larvae spend the day inside their protective tents where they are largely shielded from exposure to insecticides. At night and in rainy weather, they emerge to forage, at which time a widely disseminated control agent would be necessary.Another species, Malacosoma neustria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), known as the European tent caterpillar, is an important defoliator of various fruit trees and ornamental trees, particularly in eastern and central Turkey (Özbek and Çalmasur, 2005; Özbek and Çoruh, 2010). The caterpillars first feed on the buds and then on the leaves of the trees. Within a few years, they become so widespread that they leave the trees completely bare. Since 1970, outbreaks have been observed at about 3-to 7-year intervals in the province of Erzurum (Özbek and Çoruh, 2010).Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs), members of the family Baculoviridae, are one of the most promising biological and biotechnological control agents of insects to date (Demir et al., 2008). They are enveloped viruses that have double-stranded, circular DNA genomes ranging in size from 80 to 180 kbp (Theilmann et al., 2005). These viruses have been used as biopesticides to control the population of insect pests in agriculture, forestry, and pastures (Moscardi, 1999;Lacey et al., 2001;Szewczyk et al., 2006). The susceptibility of M. americanum and M. neustria to nucleopolyhedroviruses has been noted on Abstract: A nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) was isolated from diseased larvae of the eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americanum (Fabricius), collected from the northeastern part of Turkey. Light and electron microscopic observations showed that this virus is a multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (MNPV). The dimensions of the polyhedral inclusion bodies varied from 1.0 to 2.1 µm, and the sizes of the virions were also measured to be approximately 194.5 nm. Restriction analysis of the new isolate and ManeNPV-T2 (previously isolated from M. neustria larvae) showed that the new virus is closely related to ManeNPV-T2. Furthermore, sequence and phylogenetic analysis of polh and lef-8 also revealed a high degre...

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