Visual behavior appears to provide information at several different corninunicational levels in social interaction. As a dependent variable, it has been used to measure stable individual and group differences, the regulation of the flow of conversation, and the search for feedback in an interaction. As an independent variable, it has been shown to influence emotional responses and cognithe attributions. Research efforts to specify and understand the functioning of visual behavior at each level are reviewed. An example of a multi-level approach to an area is provided by a survey of the research on visual behavior in relation to interpersonal attraction and involvement. Finally, some speculations about future questions and concerns are presented.The study of visual behavior in social interaction (or "eye contact," or "gaze direction," or "visual interaction") has become increasingly popular during the last decade; interest is high, articles are numerous, and the topic is clearly eligible for review. The difficulty in writing such a review is that visual behavior is not properly a "topic" at all. Different investigators have been concerned with very different kinds of psychological events and processes, and their methods have varied accordingly. Nor is the diversity simply a function of different points or view; by this time it is apparent that visual behavior can convey several different kinds of information, and can serve several different functions in social interaction.Most of thc research on visual behavior in humans has been conducted in the followiiig areas. First, visual behavior has been studied as a consistent, and sometimes potentially informative Phoebe C. Ellsworth (Ph.D., Stanford University, 1970) is Assistant Professor of Psychology at Yale University. She has published articles on visual behavior in the Journul of Personality and Social Psychology and is co-author (with Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen) of Emotion in t h e H u m a n Face (New York: Pergamon, 1972).Linda M. Ludwig is a doctoral candidate in Clinical Psychology at Yale University and involved in research on the effects of observer vs. observed set on interpretation of nonverbal cues.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of early experience (rearing conditions) on the central nervous system (CNS) and behavior of spiderlings of Hogna carolinensis (Lycosidae). We were interested in whether or not spiderlings that were allowed to remain in contact with their maternal parent and siblings (enriched condition, EC) would exhibit differences in CNS development or subsequent behavior when compared with those reared in isolation (improverished condition, IC). Spiderlings emerged from their egg sacs and climbed onto the dorsal surface of their mother's abdomen where they remained until their yolk supply was depleted (5 days). They dispersed on day 6 after emergence. We compared the ability of 16-day-old EC and IC spiderlings to capture prey in a linear runway and to learn a complex maze (spatial learning). We also compared certain aspects of CNS development (brain weight, total number of brain cells, volume of central body and protocerebral neuropil) in EC and IC spiderlings. Results indicated that EC subjects are more efficient at capturing moving prey (crickets) and exhibited improved performance (significantly fewer blind alley errors) in the maze. The volume of the protocerebral neuropil in 6-day-old EC animals increased 30% over a 5-day period after emergence as compared to IC animals of the same age. The volume of the central body of EC animals increased 34.8% over the same time period. On day 6 after emergence, the weight of the protocerebrum was significantly greater in EC versus IC subjects. There were no significant effects of rearing condition (EC vs IC) or age (1- and 6-day-old spiderlings) on the total number of nerve cells in the protocerebrum, suggesting that the difference in protocerebral weight was due primarily to differences in supporting glial tissues and neuropil matrix. In conclusion, the data suggest that early contact with the maternal parent and siblings is of vital importance to CNS development in lycosid spiderlings and can influence the capacity for spatial learning as well as the ability to capture prey.

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