SUMMARY Dopamine (DA) neurons in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) integrate complex inputs to encode multiple signals that influence motivated behaviors via diverse projections. Here we combine axon-initiated viral transduction with rabies-mediated transsynaptic tracing and Cre-based cell type-specific targeting to systematically map input–output relationships of VTA-DA neurons. We found that VTA-DA (and VTA-GABA) neurons receive excitatory, inhibitory, and modulatory input from diverse sources. VTA-DA neurons projecting to different forebrain regions exhibit specific biases in their input selection. VTA-DA neurons projecting to lateral and medial nucleus accumbens innervate largely non-overlapping striatal targets, with the latter also sending extra-striatal axon collaterals. Using electrophysiology and behavior, we validated new circuits identified in our tracing studies, including a previously unappreciated top-down reinforcing circuit from anterior cortex to lateral nucleus accumbens via VTA-DA neurons. This study highlights the utility of our viral-genetic tracing strategies to elucidate the complex neural substrates that underlie motivated behaviors.

Deciphering how neural circuits are anatomically organized with regard to input and output is instrumental in understanding how the brain processes information. For example, locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LC-NE) neurons receive input from and send output to broad regions of the brain and spinal cord, and regulate diverse functions including arousal, attention, mood, and sensory gating1–8. However, it is unclear how LC-NE neurons divide up their brain-wide projection patterns and whether different LC-NE neurons receive differential input. Here, we developed a set of viral-genetic tools to quantitatively analyze the input–output relationship of neural circuits, and applied these tools to dissect the LC-NE circuit in mice. Rabies virus-based input mapping indicated that LC-NE neurons receive convergent synaptic input from many regions previously identified as sending axons to the LC and suggested novel presynaptic partners, including cerebellar Purkinje cells. The TRIO (tracing the relationship between input and output) method enables trans-synaptic input tracing from specific subsets of neurons based on their projection and cell type. We found that LC-NE neurons projecting to diverse output regions receive mostly similar input. Projection-based viral labeling revealed extensive output divergence: LC-NE neurons projecting to one output region also project to all brain regions we examined. Thus, the LC-NE circuit overall integrates information from, and broadcasts to, many brain regions, consistent with its primary role in regulating brain states. At the same time, we uncovered several levels of specificity in certain LC-NE sub-circuits. These viral-genetic tools for mapping output architecture and input–output relationship are applicable to other neuronal circuits and organisms. More broadly, our viral-genetic approaches provide an efficient intersectional means to target neuronal populations based on cell type and projection pattern.

The release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine throughout the mammalian brain is important for modulating attention, arousal, and cognition during many behaviors. Furthermore, disruption of norepinephrine-mediated signaling is strongly associated with several psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders in humans, emphasizing the clinical importance of this system. Most of the norepinephrine released in the brain is supplied by a very small, bilateral nucleus in the brainstem called the locus coeruleus. The goal of this minireview is to emphasize the complexity of the locus coeruleus beyond its primary definition as a norepinephrine-producing nucleus. Several recent studies utilizing innovative technologies highlight how the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system can now be targeted with increased accuracy and resolution, in order to better understand its role in modulating diverse behaviors.