Research concerning spatial dynamics of biodiversity generally has been limited to considerations of the taxonomic dimension, which is insensitive to interspecific variation in ecological or evolutionary characteristics that play important roles in species assembly and provide linkages to ecosystem services. Consequently, the assumption that the taxonomic dimension is a good surrogate for other dimensions remains unconfirmed. We assessed variation in taxonomic (species richness) as well as phylogenetic and functional (Rao's quadratic entropy, a measurement of dispersion) dimensions of bat biodiversity along an elevational gradient in the Manu Biosphere Reserve of Peru. Phylogenetic dispersion was based on relatedness of species derived from a mammalian supertree. Functional dispersion was estimated separately for each of six functional components that reflect particular niche axes (e.g. diet, foraging strategy, body size) and for all functional components combined. Species richness declined nonlinearly with elevation, whereas phylogenetic dispersion and functional dispersion based on all functional components were not significantly associated with elevation (orthogonal polynomial regression). Moreover, considerable heterogeneity in the form of elevational relationships existed among functional components. After accounting for variation in species richness, dispersion of phylogenetic, diet and foraging strategy attributes were significantly greater than expected at high elevations, whereas dispersion of body size was significantly less than expected at high elevations. Species richness was a poor surrogate for phylogenetic or functional dispersion. Functional dispersion based on multiple components obscured patterns detected by particular components and hindered identification of mechanistic explanations for elevational variation in biodiversity. Variation in phylogenetic dispersion effectively captured the composite variation represented by all functional components, suggesting a phylogenetic signal in functional attributes. Mechanisms that give rise to variation in richness do not fully account for variation in phylogenetic or functional characteristics of assemblages. Greater than expected phylogenetic, diet and foraging strategy dispersion at high elevations were associated with the loss of phylogenetically or functionally redundant species, suggesting that increasing interspecific competition with decreasing productivity resulted in competitive exclusion. In contrast, low dispersion of size attributes at high elevations suggests the importance of abiotic filtering that favours small-sized species that can more easily enter torpor.

Relationships among taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic dimensions of biodiversity provide insight about the relative contributions of ecological and evolutionary processes in structuring local assemblages. We used data for rodent species distributions from an extensive tropical elevational gradient to 1) describe elevational gradients for each of three dimensions of biodiversity, 2) evaluate the suffi ciency of species richness as a surrogate for other dimensions, and 3) quantify the relative support for mechanisms that increase or decrease phylogenetic or functional dispersion. Taxonomic biodiversity was quantifi ed by species richness, as well as by richness, evenness, diversity, dominance, and rarity at generic and familial levels. Morphological and categorical traits were used to estimate functional biodiversity, and an ultrametric mammalian supertree was used as the basis for estimating phylogenetic biodiversity. Elevational gradients of each dimension of biodiversity were strong, with signifi cant linear and non-linear components based on orthogonal polynomial regression. Empirical linear and non-linear regression components were consistently diff erent than those expected based on species richness for generic, familial, and phylogenetic biodiversity, but not for functional biodiversity. Nevertheless, the congruence of dimensions of biodiversity based on correlation analyses indicated that any one dimension is a useful surrogate for the other dimensions for rodents at Manu. Given variation in species richness, assemblages from lowland rainforests comprised more biodiversity than expected, whereas assemblages from cloud and elfi n forests represented less biodiversity than expected. Warm temperatures, vertical complexity of the vegetation, and high productivity likely facilitate niche diff erentiation in rainforests, whereas cricetid rodents are competitively superior to other clades in the less structurally complex, less productive, and colder, high elevation habitats.

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We present a complete dataset from the literature on functional traits including morphological measurements, dietary information, foraging strategy, and foraging location for all 398 extant species of parrots. The morphological measurements include: mass, total length, wing chord, culmen length, tarsus length, and tail length. The diet data describe whether each species is known to consume particular food items (e.g. nectar, berries, and carrion), foraging strategy data describes how each species captures or accesses food, and foraging location data describe the habitat from which each species finds food (e.g. ground, canopy, and subcanopy). We also present a time-calibrated phylogenetic supertree that contains all 398 extant species as well as 15 extinct species (413 total species). These data are hosted on the Figshare data depository ( https://figshare.com/s/6cdf8cf00793deab7ba6 ).

Achieving ambitious goals to conserve at least 30% of U.S. lands and waters by 2030 (“30 × 30”) will require a multiscale baseline understanding of current protections, key decisionmakers, and policy tools for moving forward. To help conservationists and decisionmakers support the science‐based call to address the biodiversity and climate crises, we analyze the current spatial patterns of biodiversity and carbon in the United States relative to protected areas and present a typology for classifying land contributions toward the 30 × 30 goals. Analyses demonstrate that 30% is achievable nationally, but spatial heterogeneity highlights the need for tailored approaches from a mix of authorities at federal, regional, and state scales. Current land protections rarely overlap with areas essential for conserving imperiled species biodiversity and mitigating climate change. One‐fifth of unprotected biodiversity hotspots and over 8% carbon‐rich areas face a higher risk of land conversion by 2050. In contrast, 3.6% of key biodiversity areas and 15.6% of carbon‐rich areas may experience higher climate exposure. Policy considerations for making practical, substantive progress toward ecologically meaningful achievement of 30 × 30 goal include the need for significant investments in public and private lands conservation.