Second language anxiety has a debilitating effect on the oral performance of speakers of English as a second language. This article describes a research project concerning the conceptualization of second language speaking anxiety, the relationship between anxiety and second language performance, and the major reported causes of second language anxiety. The participants in this study were advanced English for academic purposes (EAP) students studying on intensive EAP courses immediately prior to entering Australian universities ( N = 275). The second language speaking anxiety scale (SLSAS) was developed for the study. This instrument provided evidence for a dual conceptualization of anxiety reflecting both oral communication within and outside the language learning classroom. The scale was validated using confirmatory factor analysis. The analysis indicated second language speaking anxiety to be a significant predictor of oral achievement. Reported causes of anxiety were investigated through interviews. The results indicate that the most frequent source of anxiety was interacting with native speakers. Evidence for two types of anxious language learner emerged; retrieval interference and skills deficit. There was an indication from the study that English language learners from Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHCs), China, Korea and Japan were more anxious language learners than other ethnic groups.

This study involves a large-scale investigation of willingness to communicate (WTC) in Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms. A hypothesized model integrating WTC in English, communication confidence, motivation, learner beliefs, and classroom environment was tested using structural equation modeling. Validation of the measurements involved exploratory factor analyses on the dataset collected in a pilot study and confirmatory factor analyses in the main study. The results show that classroom environment predicts WTC, communication confidence, learner beliefs, and motivation. Motivation influences WTC indirectly through confidence. The direct effect of learner beliefs on motivation and confidence is identified. The model provides an adequate fit to the data, indicating the potential to draw on individual and contextual variables to account for classroom communication.Keywords willingness to communicate in English; communication confidence; motivation; learner beliefs; classroom environment; structural equation modeling Contemporary second language (L2) pedagogy has attached great importance to communicative interaction in class with a view to developing learners' communicative competence. Individual learners, however, are not always willing to attempt L2 communication. Willingness to communicate (WTC) in an L2, which is an individual difference (ID) factor perceived to facilitate L2 acquisition, has been extensively studied in recent years (MacIntyre, 2007; We would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their invaluable feedback and suggestions given on the early version of this article.

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This article discusses the usefulness of using generic strategy inventories to assess language learning strategies (LLSs) across contexts. A review of the LLS research is presented with a critique of extant studies in relation to classification of strategies, methodological issues, and the predictability of language performance. The present research project aimed to measure LLSs, provide evidence for a taxonomy of LLS, and investigate the relationship between LLS and English language performance. The article concludes that studies employing LLS scales that use a standard Likert‐type scale are not appropriate because of the wide range of possible contextual influences, such as cultural and educational background. The article suggests a more situated approach utilizing in‐depth qualitative methods would be more appropriate in assessing LLS use.

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