Callose is a β‐1,3‐glucan commonly found in higher plants that plays an important role in regulating plant pollen development. It is synthesized by glucan synthase‐like (GSL) and is degraded by the enzyme endo‐1,3‐β‐glucosidase. However, genome‐wide analyses of callose GSL and endo‐1,3‐β‐glucosidase enzymes in fertile and sterile flower buds of Chinese cabbage have not yet been reported. Here, we show that delayed callose degradation at the tetrad stage may be the main cause of microspore abortion in Chinese cabbage with nuclear sterility near‐isogenic line ‘10L03’. Fifteen callose GSLs and 77 endo‐1,3‐β‐glucosidase enzymes were identified in Chinese cabbage. Phylogenetic, gene structural and chromosomal analyses revealed that the expansion occurred due to three polyploidization events of these two gene families. Expression pattern analysis showed that the GSL and endo‐1,3‐β‐glucosidase enzymes are involved in the development of various tissues and that the genes functionally diverged during long‐term evolution. Relative gene expression analysis of Chinese cabbage flowers at different developmental stages showed that high expression of the synthetic enzyme BraA01g041620 and low expression of AtA6‐homologous genes (BraA04g008040, BraA07g009320, BraA01g030220 and BraA03g040850) and two other genes (BraA10g020080 and BraA05g038340) for degrading enzymes in the meiosis and tetrad stages may cause nuclear sterility in the near‐isogenic line ‘10L03’. Overall, our data provide an important foundation for comprehending the potential roles of the callose GSL and endo‐1,3‐β‐glucosidase enzymes in regulating pollen development in Chinese cabbage.

Cattle, as an important tool for agricultural production in ancient China, have a complex history of domestication and distribution in China. Although it is generally accepted that ancient Chinese taurine cattle originated from the Near East, the explanation regarding their spread through China and whether or not this spread was associated with native aurochs during ancient times are still unclear. In this study, we obtained three nearly complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) from bovine remains dating back ca. 4,000 years at the Taosi and Guchengzhai sites in North China. For the first time at the mitogenome level, phylogenetic analyses confirmed the approximately 4,000-year-old bovines from North China as taurine cattle. All ancient cattle from both sites belonged to the T3 haplogroup, suggesting their origin from the Near East. The high affinity between ancient samples and southern Chinese taurine cattle indicated that ancient Chinese cattle had a genetic contribution to the taurine cattle of South China. A rapid decrease in the female effective population size ca. 4.65 thousand years ago (kya) and a steep increase ca. 1.99 kya occurred in Chinese taurine cattle. Overall, these results provide increasing evidence of the origin of cattle in the middle Yellow River region of China.