Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is marked by alveolar enlargement and excess production of airway mucus. Acrolein, a component of cigarette smoke, increases mucin 5AC (MUC5AC), a prevalent airway mucin in NCI-H292 cells by transcriptional activation, but the signal transduction pathways involved in acrolein-induced MUC5AC expression are unknown. Acrolein depleted cellular glutathione at doses of 10 muM or greater, higher than those sufficient (0.03 muM) to increase MUC5AC mRNA, suggesting that MUC5AC expression was independent of oxidative stress. In contrast, acrolein increased MUC5AC mRNA levels by phosphorylating epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/2, or MAPK 3/2(ERK1/2). Pretreating the cells with an EGFR-neutralizing antibody, or a metalloproteinase inhibitor, decreased the acrolein-induced MUC5AC mRNA increase. Small, interfering RNA directed against ADAM17 or MMP9 inhibited the acrolein-induced MUC5AC mRNA increase. Acrolein increased the release and subsequent activation of pro-MMP9. Acrolein increased MMP9 and decreased tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP3), an endogenous inhibitor of ADAM17, transcripts. Together, these data suggest that acrolein induces MUC5AC expression via an initial ligand-dependent activation of EGFR mediated by ADAM17 and MMP9. In addition, a prolonged effect of acrolein may be mediated by altering MMP9 and TIMP3 transcription.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a global public health problem, is characterized by progressive difficulty in breathing, with increased mucin production, especially in the small airways. Acrolein, a constituent of cigarette smoke and an endogenous mediator of oxidative stress, increases airway mucin 5, subtypes A and C (MUC5AC) production; however, the mechanism remains unclear. In this study, increased mMUC5AC transcripts and protein were associated with increased lung matrix metalloproteinase 9 (mMMP9) transcripts, protein, and activity in acrolein-exposed mice. Increased mMUC5AC transcripts and mucin protein were diminished in gene-targeted Mmp9 mice [Mmp9 (-/-) ] or in mice treated with an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor, erlotinib. Acrolein also decreased mTissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase protein 3 (an MMP9 inhibitor) transcript levels. In a cell-free system, acrolein increased pro-hMMP9 cleavage and activity in concentrations (100-300 nM) found in sputum from subjects with COPD. Acrolein increased hMMP9 transcripts in human airway cells, which was inhibited by an MMP inhibitor, EGFR-neutralizing antibody, or a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 3/2 inhibitor. Together these findings indicate that acrolein can initiate cleavage of pro-hMMP9 and EGFR/MAPK signaling that leads to additional MMP9 formation. Augmentation of hMMP9 activity, in turn, could contribute to persistent excessive mucin production.

Rationale: Acute lung injury can occur from multiple causes, resulting in high mortality. The pathophysiology of nickel-induced acute lung injury in mice is remarkably complex, and the molecular mechanisms are uncertain. Objectives: To integrate molecular pathways and investigate the role of transforming growth factor ␤ (TGF-␤) in acute lung injury in mice. Methods: cDNA microarray analyses were used to identify lung gene expression changes after nickel exposure. MAPPFinder analysis of the microarray data was used to determine significantly altered molecular pathways. TGF-␤1 protein in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, as well as the effect of inhibition of TGF-␤, was assessed in nickel-exposed mice. The effect of TGF-␤ on surfactant-associated protein B (Sftpb) promoter activity was measured in mouse lung epithelial cells. Measurements and Main Results:Genes that decreased the most after nickel exposure play important roles in lung fluid absorption or surfactant and phospholipid synthesis, and genes that increased the most were involved in TGF-␤ signaling. MAPPFinder analysis further established TGF-␤ signaling to be significantly altered. TGF-␤-inducible genes involved in the regulation of extracellular matrix function and fibrinolysis were significantly increased after nickel exposure, and TGF-␤1 protein was also increased in the lavage fluid. Pharmacologic inhibition of TGF-␤ attenuated nickel-induced protein in bronchoalveolar lavage. In addition, treatment with TGF-␤1 dose-dependently repressed Sftpb promoter activity in vitro, and a novel TGF-␤-responsive region in the Sftpb promoter was identified. Conclusions: These data suggest that TGF-␤ acts as a central mediator of acute lung injury through the alteration of several different molecular pathways.