Nutritional supplement (NS) use is widespread in sport. This study applied an integrated social cognitive approach to examine doping attitudes, beliefs and self-reported doping use behaviour across NS users (n=96) and non-users (n=116). Following ethical approval, 212 competitive athletes (age mean=21.4, s=4.5; 137 males) completed self-reported measures of doping-related social cognitions and behaviours, presented in an online format where completion implied consent. Significantly more NS users (22.9%) reported doping compared with non-users (6.0%; U= 4628.0, p< 0.05). NS users presented significantly more positive attitudes towards doping (U= 3152.0, p<0.05) and expressed a significantly greater belief that doping is effective (U= 3152.0, p<0.05). When presented with the scenario that performance enhancing substances are effective and increase the possibility of winning, NS users were significantly more in favour of competing in situations which allow doping (U= 3504.5, p<0.05). In sum, doping use is three and a half times more prevalent in NS users compared to non-users. This finding is accompanied by significant differences in doping attitudes, norms and beliefs. Thus, this paper offers support for the gateway hypothesis; athletes who engage in legal performance enhancement practices appear to embody an 'at risk' group for transition towards doping. Education should be appropriately targeted.

To enable preventive measures to be designed, it is important to identify modifiable distal and proximal factors underlying doping behaviour. This study investigated aspects of the prototype willingness model in relation to doping. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 729 competitive athletes. Following ethical approval, athletes (mean age= 28.8 ± 10.1 years; 63% male) completed an online questionnaire which assessed doping-related attitudes, norms, prototype perceptions, outcome expectancies and behavioural willingness.Using hierarchical multiple regression analysis, 54.4% of the total variance in willingness to dope was explained. Specifically, past doping, attitudes and favourability of performance enhancing substance user prototypes were the strongest unique predictors of willingness to dope. Athletes appeared most willing to dope if they were to suffer an injury, a dip in performance or think others are doping and getting away with it. National level athletes

To inform anti-doping policy and practice, it is important to understand the complexities of doping. The purpose of this study was to collate and systematically examine the reasoned decisions published by UK Anti-Doping for doping sanctions in rugby union in the UK since the introduction of the 2009 World Anti-Doping Code. Case files were content analysed to extract demographic information and details relating to the anti-doping rule violation (ADRV), including individuals' explanations for how/why the ADRV occurred. Between 2009 and 2015, 49 rugby union players and one coach from across the UK were sanctioned. Over 50% of the cases involved players under the age of 25, competing at sub-elite levels. Reasons in defence of the ADRV focused on functional use and lifestyle factors rather than performance enhancement. An a priori assessment of the "need", "risk" and "consequence" of using a substance was not commonplace; further strengthening calls for increasing the reach of anti-doping education. The findings also deconstruct the view that "doped" athletes are the same. Consequently, deepening understanding of the social and cultural conditions that encourage doping remains a priority.

This paper qualitatively explores national level athletes' willingness to report doping in sport.Following ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine national level athletes from rugby league (n = 5) and track and field athletics (n = 4). Thematic analysis established the main themes within the data. Contextual differences existed around the role that athletes perceived they would play if they became aware of doping. Specifically, track and field athletes would adopt the role of a whistle-blower and report individuals who were doping in their sport. In comparison, the rugby league players highlighted a moral dilemma. Despite disagreeing with their team mates' actions, the players would adhere to a code of silence and refrain from reporting doping. Taking these findings into account, prevention programmes might focus on changing broader group and community norms around doping. In doing so, community members' receptivity to prevention messages may increase. Moreover, developing skills to intervene (e.g., speaking out against social norms that support doping behaviour) or increasing awareness of reporting lines could enhance community responsibility for doping prevention. In sum, the findings highlight the need to consider the context of sport and emphasise that a one-size fits all approach to anti-doping is problematic.

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