ObjectiveAnimal feeding practices in the United States have changed considerably over the past century. As large-scale, concentrated production methods have become the predominant model for animal husbandry, animal feeds have been modified to include ingredients ranging from rendered animals and animal waste to antibiotics and organoarsenicals. In this article we review current U.S. animal feeding practices and etiologic agents that have been detected in animal feed. Evidence that current feeding practices may lead to adverse human health impacts is also evaluated.Data sourcesWe reviewed published veterinary and human-health literature regarding animal feeding practices, etiologic agents present in feed, and human health effects along with proceedings from animal feed workshops.Data extractionData were extracted from peer-reviewed articles and books identified using PubMed, Agricola, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Drug Administration, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention databases.Data synthesisFindings emphasize that current animal feeding practices can result in the presence of bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, prions, arsenicals, and dioxins in feed and animal-based food products. Despite a range of potential human health impacts that could ensue, there are significant data gaps that prevent comprehensive assessments of human health risks associated with animal feed. Limited data are collected at the federal or state level concerning the amounts of specific ingredients used in animal feed, and there are insufficient surveillance systems to monitor etiologic agents “from farm to fork.”ConclusionsIncreased funding for integrated veterinary and human health surveillance systems and increased collaboration among feed professionals, animal producers, and veterinary and public health officials is necessary to effectively address these issues.

Food packaging is of high societal value because it conserves and protects food, makes food transportable and conveys information to consumers. It is also relevant for marketing, which is of economic significance. Other types of food contact articles, such as storage containers, processing equipment and filling lines, are also important for food production and food supply. Food contact articles are made up of one or multiple different food contact materials and consist of food contact chemicals. However, food contact chemicals transfer from all types of food contact materials and articles into food and, consequently, are taken up by humans. Here we highlight topics of concern based on scientific findings showing that food contact materials and articles are a relevant exposure pathway for known hazardous substances as well as for a plethora of toxicologically uncharacterized chemicals, both intentionally and non-intentionally added. We describe areas of certainty, like the fact that chemicals migrate from food contact articles into food, and uncertainty, for example unidentified chemicals migrating into food. Current safety assessment of food contact chemicals is ineffective at protecting human health. In addition, society is striving for waste reduction with a focus on food packaging. As a result, solutions are being developed toward reuse, recycling or alternative (non-plastic) materials. However, the critical aspect of chemical safety is often ignored. Developing solutions for improving the safety of food contact chemicals and for tackling the circular economy must include current scientific knowledge. This cannot be done in isolation but must include all relevant experts and stakeholders. Therefore, we provide an overview of areas of concern and related activities that will improve the safety of food contact articles and support a circular economy. Our aim is to initiate a broader discussion involving scientists with relevant expertise but not currently working on food contact materials, and decision makers and influencers addressing single-use food packaging due to environmental concerns. Ultimately, we aim to support science-based decision making in the interest of improving public health. Notably, reducing exposure to hazardous food contact chemicals contributes to the prevention of associated chronic diseases in the human population.

In relation to residue variability and acute dietary intake, this paper considers whether or not consumers are adequately protected, and makes recommendations for governments and international bodies. Existing risk assessment science is inadequate to lay to rest some concerns raised by the scientific community, and it is plausible that acute exposures to pesticides from the most contaminated food may be causing adverse effects in some consumers. Consumers International recommends that: (1) analysis and regulation of pesticides with a common mechanism of action (e.g. organophosphate insecticides) be conducted in an integrated, aggregated manner, not on a single pesticide basis; (2) exposure to pesticides in foods consumed in large amounts by children be reduced by revising good agricultural practices; (3) clear risk assessment policies for acute risk assessments be established at the national and international level; and (4) an additional safety factor be applied in order to protect children when establishing maximum residue limits (MRLs) for pesticides in the absence of reliable data on the effects of pesticides on children (e.g. no pesticide-specific tests on immature animals for effects on the developing brain, endocrine, or immune systems).

Inhibiting Pesticides. (Under the direction of ALVIS G. TURNER) Cholinesterase-inhibiting (ChE-I) pesticides, which include both organophosphates (OP's) and carbamates, together constitute a very significant proportion of pesticides used in the U.S. and worldwide. ChE-I pesticides are known to disrupt nervous system functioning in animals and humans, and OP's are implicated in human poisonings more often than any other class of pesticides. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses ChE-I to characterize the risks of these pesticides since ChE-I is a sensitive predictor of exposure. Assessing the risks of OP's and carbamates on the basis of ChE-I involves many uncertainties. The decisions and assumptions made to resolve these uncertainties are science policy decisions, and can have a significant impact on the final characterization of the risk. This report identifies the principal uncertainties throughout each of the four stages of risk assessment (as described by the National Research Council), discusses the nature and public health implications of these uncertainties, suggests an approach for describing and resolving uncertainties, and provides recommendations useful in developing a science policy for ChE-I pesticides. It is concluded that the EPA's use of an uncertainty factor as small as ten is not justified by the available scientific evidence.