Vertebrate locomotor circuitry contains distinct classes of ventral spinal cord neurons which each have particular functional properties. While we know some of the genes expressed by each of these cell types, we do not yet know how several of these neurons are specified. Here, we investigate the functions of Tal1, Gata2a, and Gata3 transcription factors in the development of two of these populations of neurons with important roles in locomotor circuitry: V2b neurons and cerebrospinal fluid-contacting Kolmer-Agduhr (KA) neurons (also called CSF-cNs). Our data provide the first demonstration, in any vertebrate, that Tal1 and Gata3 are required for correct development of KA and V2b neurons, respectively. We also uncover differences in the genetic regulation of V2b cell development in zebrafish compared to mouse. In addition, we demonstrate that Sox1a and Sox1b are expressed by KA and V2b neurons in zebrafish, which differs from mouse, where Sox1 is expressed by V2c neurons. KA neurons can be divided into ventral KA″ neurons and more dorsal KA′ neurons. Consistent with previous morpholino experiments, our mutant data suggest that Tal1 and Gata3 are required in KA′ but not KA″ cells, whereas Gata2a is required in KA″ but not KA′ cells, even though both of these cell types co-express all three of these transcription factors. In gata2a mutants, cells in the KA″ region of the spinal cord lose expression of most KA″ genes and there is an increase in the number of cells expressing V3 genes, suggesting that Gata2a is required to specify KA″ and repress V3 fates in cells that normally develop into KA″ neurons. On the other hand, our data suggest that Gata3 and Tal1 are both required for KA′ neurons to differentiate from progenitor cells. In the KA′ region of these mutants, cells no longer express KA′ markers and there is an increase in the number of mitotically-active cells. Finally, our data demonstrate that all three of these transcription factors are required for later stages of V2b neuron differentiation and that Gata2a and Tal1 have different functions in V2b development in zebrafish than in mouse.

BackgroundIt has been shown that nanomaterials (NMs) are able to translocate to secondary tissues one of the important being the kidneys. Oxidative stress has been implicated as a possible mechanism for NM toxicity, hence effects on the human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (HK-2) treated with a panel of engineered nanomaterials (NMs) consisting of two zinc oxide particles (ZnO - coated - NM 110 and uncoated - NM 111), two multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) (NM 400 and NM 402), one silver (NM 300) and five TiO2 NMs (NM 101, NRCWE 001, 002, 003 and 004) were evaluated.MethodsIn order to assess the toxicological impact of the engineered NMs on HK-2 cells - WST-1 cytotoxicity assay, FACSArray, HE oxidation and the comet assays were utilised. For statistical analysis, the experimental values were compared to their corresponding controls using an ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparison.ResultsWe found the two ZnO NMs (24 hr LC50 – 2.5 μg/cm2) and silver NM (24 hr LC50 – 10 μg/cm2) were highly cytotoxic to the cells. The LC50 was not attained in the presence of any of the other engineered nanomaterials (up to 80 μg/cm2). All nanomaterials significantly increased IL8 and IL6 production. Meanwhile no significant change in TNF-α or MCP-1 was detectable. The most notable increase in ROS was noted following treatment with the Ag and the two ZnO NMs. Finally, genotoxicity was measured at sub-lethal concentrations. We found a small but significant increase in DNA damage following exposure to seven of the ten NMs investigated (NM 111, NRCWE 001 and NRCWE 003 being the exception) with this increase being most visible following exposure to Ag and the positively charged TiO2.ConclusionsWhile the NMs could be categorised as low and highly cytotoxic, sub-lethal effects such as cytokine production and genotoxicity were observed with some of the low toxicity materials.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) triggers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and impairs autophagic clearance of damaged organelles and toxic macromolecules. In this study, we investigated the effects of the post-TBI administration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on improving hippocampal autophagy flux and cognitive functions of rats. TBI was induced by cortical contusion injury in Sprague-Dawley rats, which received DHA (16 mg/kg in DMSO, intraperitoneal administration) or vehicle DMSO (1 ml/kg) with an initial dose within 15 min after the injury, followed by a daily dose for 3 or 7 days. First, RT-qPCR reveals that TBI induced a significant elevation in expression of autophagy-related genes in the hippocampus, including SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1), lysosomal-associated membrane proteins 1 and 2 (Lamp1 and Lamp2), and cathepsin D (Ctsd). Upregulation of the corresponding autophagy-related proteins was detected by immunoblotting and immunostaining. In contrast, the DHA-treated rats did not exhibit the TBI-induced autophagy biogenesis and showed restored CTSD protein expression and activity. T-weighted images and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of ex vivo brains showed that DHA reduced both gray matter and white matter damages in cortical and hippocampal tissues. DHA-treated animals performed better than the vehicle control group on the Morris water maze test. Taken together, these findings suggest that TBI triggers sustained stimulation of autophagy biogenesis, autophagy flux, and lysosomal functions in the hippocampus. Swift post-injury DHA administration restores hippocampal lysosomal biogenesis and function, demonstrating its therapeutic potential.

Recent advances in genome sequencing have led to the identification of new ion and metabolite transporters, many of which have not been characterized. Due to the variety of subcellular localizations, cargo and transport mechanisms, such characterization is a daunting task, and predictive approaches focused on the functional context of transporters are very much needed. Here we present a case for identifying a transporter localization using evolutionary rate covariation (ERC), a computational approach based on pairwise correlations of amino acid sequence evolutionary rates across the mammalian phylogeny. As a case study, we find that poorly characterized transporter SLC30A9 (ZnT9) coevolves with several components of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation chain, suggesting mitochondrial localization. We confirmed this computational finding experimentally using recombinant human SLC30A9. SLC30A9 loss caused zinc mishandling in the mitochondria, suggesting that under normal conditions it acts as a zinc exporter. We therefore propose that ERC can be used to predict the functional context of novel transporters and other poorly characterized proteins.

Mucolipidosis type IV (MLIV) is a lysosomal disease caused by mutations in the MCOLN1 gene that encodes the endolysosomal transient receptor potential channel mucolipin-1, or TRPML1. MLIV results in developmental delay, motor and cognitive impairments, and vision loss. Brain abnormalities include thinning and malformation of the corpus callosum, white-matter abnormalities, accumulation of undegraded intracellular ‘storage’ material and cerebellar atrophy in older patients. Identification of the early events in the MLIV course is key to understanding the disease and deploying therapies. The Mcoln1−/− mouse model reproduces all major aspects of the human disease. We have previously reported hypomyelination in the MLIV mouse brain. Here, we investigated the onset of hypomyelination and compared oligodendrocyte maturation between the cortex/forebrain and cerebellum. We found significant delays in expression of mature oligodendrocyte markers Mag, Mbp and Mobp in the Mcoln1−/− cortex, manifesting as early as 10 days after birth and persisting later in life. Such delays were less pronounced in the cerebellum. Despite our previous finding of diminished accumulation of the ferritin-bound iron in the Mcoln1−/− brain, we report no significant changes in expression of the cytosolic iron reporters, suggesting that iron-handling deficits in MLIV occur in the lysosomes and do not involve broad iron deficiency. These data demonstrate very early deficits of oligodendrocyte maturation and critical regional differences in myelination between the forebrain and cerebellum in the mouse model of MLIV. Furthermore, they establish quantitative readouts of the MLIV impact on early brain development, useful to gauge efficacy in pre-clinical trials.