Background Millions of infants are fed breast milk substitutes, and the type of infant formula can impact weight gain patterns. Objective We conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine the direct impact of 2 types of infant formula (cow milk formula, CMF; extensively protein hydrolyzed formula, EHF) on growth and energy balance. Design A racially diverse group of formula-fed infants (n = 113) were randomly assigned to either CMF or EHF from the age of 0.75 to 12.5 mo. At each monthly visit, anthropometric measures were obtained to determine growth z scores and weight gain velocity, and to categorize early weight gain patterns as rapid or nonrapid. Also, diet records were collected to determine energy from formula and other sources. Comprehensive assessments of energy balance (intake, expenditure, loss) were made at 0.75, 3.5, and 12.5 mo. Results Beginning 3 wk after randomization, CMF infants had significantly higher weight, but not length, z scores than did EHF infants, and this persisted after solid foods complemented the formula diet. On average, weight gain velocity from 0.75 to 4.5 mo was within the range of typically growing infants for both groups, yet velocity was 3.9 g/d greater for CMF infants (P = 0.002), who were more likely to be classified as an early rapid weight gainer, than EHF infants (46% compared with 18%; P = 0.007). Early differences in energy intake and fecal loss, yielding greater energy available for deposition among CMF infants, contributed to the differential weight gain patterns. There were no significant differences between the formula treatment groups in total energy expenditure or sleeping energy expenditure. Conclusions Among healthy infants, the type of formula impacted on early rapid weight gain patterns owing to energy intake and loss mechanisms. Research is needed to identify the macronutrients and other compositional constituents in EHF and breast milk that promote satiation and healthy weight gain during sensitive periods of development. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as: NCT01700205.

As part of ongoing efforts to promote millet as a double crop for the American Midwest, four Minnesota-grown proso millet varieties were selected for fresh gluten-free pasta production and compared to commercially available fresh gluten-free and wheat pasta. Raw and cooked pasta were analyzed for starch and protein content, color, and carotenoids. Cooked pasta was assessed for cooking quality, in-vitro starch and protein digestibility, and sensory quality. Millet pasta contained less rapidly digestible starch than commercial gluten-free pasta; however, millet and commercial gluten-free pasta had lower protein digestibility than wheat pasta. Sensory panelists detected more graininess and starchiness in millet samples than in commercial pasta. Millet varieties differed in amylose content and prolamin profile, and both factors influenced pasta properties. Pasta with more amylose and high-molecular weight prolamins had lower cooking loss and lower stickiness scores. Higher amylose contents also corresponded to higher firmness and chewiness among millet pasta samples. The millet sample with the lowest amylose and prolamin content yielded pasta of the lowest quality. Results indicated that select proso millet varieties may be suitable for fresh pasta, yet quality improvement is warranted by recipe or processing optimizations.

Objectives Understanding the dynamics of feeding is essential for preventing accelerated weight gain during infancy, a risk factor for obesity. Because infants satiate on larger volumes of cow milk formula (CMF) than CMF enriched with the free amino acid glutamate (CMF+glu), we used this model system to determine whether infants displayed consistent behaviors despite satiating on lower volumes. Methods In this laboratory-based, within-subject experimental study of ≤4-month-old infants (N=41) and their mothers, infants were videotaped while feeding to satiation CMF on one test day and CMF+glu on the other, in counterbalanced order. Each video-recording was analyzed frame-by-frame for frequency and timing of behaviors. Results Infants’ behaviors were consistent in types and frequency but were displayed sooner when feeding CMF+glu compared with CMF. The less responsive the mother’s feeding style, the less consistently the infant displayed behaviors across the two formula meals (p=0.05). Infants who spat up (a possible sign of overfeeding) consumed more formula (p=0.01) and had less responsive mothers (p=0.04) compared with the other infants. Conclusions Infants are consistent in their behavioral displays during feeding at this developmental age. Regulation of intake and signaling of satiation during bottle-feeding are associated with formula composition and maternal feeding style.

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