Background Early postnatal exposure to general anesthesia (GA) may be detrimental to brain development, resulting in long-term cognitive impairments. Older literature suggests that in utero exposure of rodents to GA causes cognitive impairments in the first-generation as well as in the second-generation offspring never exposed to GA. Thus, the authors hypothesize that transient exposure to GA during critical stages of synaptogenesis causes epigenetic changes in chromatin with deleterious effects on transcription of target genes crucial for proper synapse formation and cognitive development. They focus on the effects of GA on histone acetyltransferase activity of cAMP-responsive element-binding protein and the histone-3 acetylation status in the promoters of the target genes brain-derived neurotrophic factor and cellular Finkel-Biskis-Jinkins murine sarcoma virus osteosarcoma oncogene (c-Fos) known to regulate the development of neuronal morphology and function. Methods Seven-day-old rat pups were exposed to a sedative dose of midazolam followed by combined nitrous oxide and isoflurane anesthesia for 6 h. Hippocampal neurons and organotypic hippocampal slices were cultured in vitro and exposed to GA for 24 h. Results GA caused epigenetic modulations manifested as histone-3 hypoacetylation (decrease of 25 to 30%, n = 7 to 9) and fragmentation of cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (two-fold increase, n = 6) with 25% decrease in its histone acetyltransferase activity, which resulted in down-regulated transcription of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (0.2- to 0.4-fold, n = 7 to 8) and cellular Finkel-Biskis-Jinkins murine sarcoma virus osteosarcoma oncogene (about 0.2-fold, n = 10 to 12). Reversal of histone hypoacetylation with sodium butyrate blocked GA-induced morphological and functional impairments of neuronal development and synaptic communication. Conclusion Long-term impairments of neuronal development and synaptic communication could be caused by GA-induced epigenetic phenomena.

BackgroundPatients with Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) and Acute Lung Injury (ALI) have low concentrations of disaturated-phosphatidylcholine and surfactant protein-B in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. No information is available on their turnover.ObjectivesTo analyze disaturated-phosphatidylcholine and surfactant protein-B turnover in patients with ARDS/ALI and in human adults with normal lungs (controls).Methods2H2O as precursor of disaturated-phosphatidylcholine-palmitate and 113C-Leucine as precursor of surfactant protein-B were administered intravenously to 12 patients with ARDS/ALI and to 8 controls. Disaturated-phosphatidylcholine and surfactant protein-B were isolated from serial tracheal aspirates, and their fractional synthetic rate was derived from the 2H and 13C enrichment curves, obtained by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Disaturated-phosphatidylcholine, surfactant protein-B, and protein concentrations in tracheal aspirates were also measured.Results1) Surfactant protein-B turned over at faster rate than disaturated-phosphatidylcholine both in ARDS/ALI patients and in controls. 2) In patients with ARDS/ALI the fractional synthesis rate of disaturated-phosphatidylcholine was 3.1 times higher than in controls (p < 0.01), while the fractional synthesis rate of surfactant protein-B was not different. 3) In ARDS/ALI patients the concentrations of disaturated-phosphatidylcholine and surfactant protein-B in tracheal aspirates were markedly and significantly reduced (17% and 40% of the control values respectively).Conclusions1) Disaturated-phosphatidylcholine and surfactant protein-B have a different turnover both in healthy and diseased lungs. 2) In ARDS/ALI the synthesis of these two surfactant components may be differently regulated.

Mounting evidence suggests that prolonged exposure to general anesthesia (GA) during brain synaptogenesis damages the immature neurons and results in long-term neurocognitive impairments. Importantly, synaptogenesis relies on timely axon pruning to select axons that participate in active neural circuit formation. This process is in part dependent on proper homeostasis of neurotrophic factors, in particular brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). We set out to examine how GA may modulate axon maintenance and pruning and focused on the role of BDNF. We exposed post-natal day (PND)7 mice to ketamine using a well-established dosing regimen known to induce significant developmental neurotoxicity. We performed morphometric analyses of the infrapyramidal bundle (IPB) since IPB is known to undergo intense developmental modeling and as such is commonly used as a well-established model of in vivo pruning in rodents. When IPB remodeling was followed from PND10 until PND65, we noted a delay in axonal pruning in ketamine-treated animals when compared to controls; this impairment coincided with ketamine-induced downregulation in BDNF protein expression and maturation suggesting two conclusions: a surge in BDNF protein expression "signals" intense IPB pruning in control animals and ketamine-induced downregulation of BDNF synthesis and maturation could contribute to impaired IPB pruning. We conclude that the combined effects on BDNF homeostasis and impaired axon pruning may in part explain ketamine-induced impairment of neuronal circuitry formation.

Background-Early postnatal exposure to general anesthesia (GA) may be detrimental to brain development, resulting in long-term cognitive impairments. Older literature suggests that in utero exposure of rodents to GA causes cognitive impairments in the first-as well as in the secondgeneration offspring never exposed to GA. Thus, we hypothesize that transient exposure to GA during critical stages of synaptogenesis causes epigenetic changes in chromatin with deleterious effects on transcription of target genes crucial for proper synapse formation and cognitive development. We focus on the effects of GA on histone acetylase (HAT) activity of cAMPresponsive element binding protein (CREB) Binding Protein (CBP) and the histone-3 acetylation status in the promoters of the target genes Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and c-Fos known to regulate the development of neuronal morphology and function.Methods-7 day-old rat pups were exposed to a sedative dose of midazolam followed by combined nitrous oxide and isoflurane anesthesia for 6 hours. Hippocampal neurons and organotypic hippocampal slices were cultured in vitro and exposed to GA for 24 hours.Results-GA caused epigenetic modulations manifested as histone-3 hypoacetylation (decrease of 25-30%, n=7-9) and fragmentation of CBP (2-fold increase, n=6) with 25% decrease of its HAT