The dispositional and structural correlates of volunteerism were examined in a panel study. AIDS service organization volunteers answered questions about affect toward the organization, organizational commitment, motives for volunteering, and a prosocial personality orientation. These measures were used to predict 4 volunteer-related behaviors. Length of service was weakly correlated with the 3 other volunteer behaviors. Altruistic motives and prosocial personality characteristics predicted several of the volunteer behaviors. Initial levels of volunteer activity and organizational commitment also predicted final levels of volunteer activity, but these effects were mediated through intermediate levels of volunteer activities. The findings are discussed within the context of the volunteer process model and role identity models of volunteerism.National surveys indicate that between 45% and 55% of adults in the United States spend at least some of their time as unpaid volunteers for service organizations (Independent Sector, 1994). On average, these volunteers work a little more than 4 hr a week, and it is estimated that the annual dollar value of their efforts is more than $180 billion (Independent Sector, 1994). Although these are impressive figures, if the trend toward fewer government services for disadvantaged and ill individuals continues, the need for unpaid volunteers will increase. Thus, from an applied perspective, it is important to learn about the factors that lead people to volunteer and cause them to continue volunteering for extended periods of time. The research presented here represented one attempt to answer such questions. The study also addressed some theoretical issues concerning the variables that influence long-term, voluntary prosocial actions.Interestingly, although there is a large theoretical literature on the causes of short-term, individual acts of helping (e.g., bystander intervention; see Schroeder, Penner, Dovidio, & Piliavin, 1995), there is a relative dearth of theoretical models that attempt to explain volunteerism. Indeed, we are aware of only two well-developed models. Because these models guided much of the research described in this article, we briefly discuss each of them in the following sections.

This article briefly introduces the criterion construct, citizenship performance, describes how this construct is different from task performance and presents a recently derived 3-dimension model of the domain. Evidence is then reviewed for links between personality constructs and citizenship performance. An update of the Organ and Ryan (1995) meta-analysis of personality-organizational citizenship behavior relationships suggests slightly higher correlations than those found in the meta-analysis and also indicates that personality, at least the conscientiousness and dependability constructs, correlates more highly with citizenship performance than with task performance. These results are discussed in the broader context of building models of job performance and studying linkages between individual differences and relatively specific criterion constructs.

his chapter introduces the topic of contextual or citizenship performance and reviews research on this element of performance. In particular, it (a) T describes an initial model of citizenship performance and how this performance domain is different from task performance; (b) discusses the origins of the construct (i.e., precursors to the citizenship performance concept); (c) reviews three research areas that represent attempts to learn more about citizenship performance; (d) describes research on motives for exhibiting citizenship; and, finally, (e) presents some conclusions about how this construct is likely to be even more important for organizations in the early 21st century.The lay view of job performance typically is centered on task performance. Indeed, the most common job analysis method, task analysis, usually results in the identification of task dimensions or task categories. However, Motowidlo (1993, 1997) have focused on a separate job performance construct. Citizenship performance contributes to organizational effectiveness, but it is important primarily because it "shapes the organizational, social, and psychological context that serves as the critical catalyst for task activities and processes" (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, p. 71). Citizenship performance includes such activities as helping others with their jobs, supporting the organization, and volunteering for additional work or responsibility Borman and Motowidlo (1993) proposed a five-dimension model of citizenship performance: (a) persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort as necessary to complete one's own task activities successfully; (b) volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of one's own job; (c) helping and cooperating with others; (d) following organizational rules and procedures; and (e) endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives.

Research on size overestimation among anorexics has failed to control for the effects of actual body size on estimated size. We obtained estimates of the size of 3 body sites from 3 groups: 13 anorexic women; 13 non-eating disordered women matched with the anorexics on actual body size; and 13 non-eating disordered women of average size. The anorexic and size-matched normal subjects did not differ in the extent to which they overestimated their body size, but both displayed significantly greater overestimation than did the subjects of average size. Both groups also estimated the actual size of their body sites to be larger than did average-size normal subjects. These findings illustrate the need for appropriate control procedures when considering body image disturbances among persons with eating disorders, and they raise questions about the psychological significance of disturbances in the perceptual component of body image.

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