We show that, in nonequilibrium systems with small heat flows, there is a time-scale dependent effective temperature which plays the same role as the thermodynamical temperature, in that it controls the direction of heat flows and acts as a criterion for thermalization. We simultaneously treat the case of stationary systems with weak stirring and of glassy systems that age after cooling and show that they exhibit very similar behavior provided that time dependences are expressed in terms of the correlations of the system. We substantiate our claims with examples taken from solvable models with nontrivial low-temperature dynamics, but argue that they have a much wider range of validity. We suggest experimental checks of these ideas. 75.40.Gb, 75.10.Nr, Typeset using REVT E X 1

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Résumé. 2014 On donne une formulation par intégrales de

We introduce a numerical procedure to evaluate directly the probabilities of large deviations of physical quantities, such as current or density, that are local in time. The large-deviation functions are given in terms of the typical properties of a modified dynamics, and since they no longer involve rare events, can be evaluated efficiently and over a wider ranges of values. We illustrate the method with the current fluctuations of the Totally Asymmetric Exclusion Process and with the work distribution of a driven Lorentz gas.