The risk of violence following childhood maltreatment is uncertain. This meta-analytic review identified prospective studies that have examined this association. We systematically searched three electronic databases (PsycINFO, EMBASE, and MEDLINE) and completed a targeted search on Google Scholar. These were supplemented with scanning reference lists and correspondence with authors. We considered non-English-language and unpublished studies. Studies were included if childhood maltreatment was measured before age 18 years and occurred before violent outcomes. We identified 18 eligible studies with data on 39,271 participants. We conducted meta-analysis to calculate odds ratios ( ORs) using random-effects models. Heterogeneity was explored through subgroup analyses and meta-regression. The overall OR of violent outcomes in childhood maltreatment was 1.8 (95% confidence interval [1.4, 2.3]) with substantial heterogeneity ( I = 92%). Meta-regression suggested that risk of violence following childhood maltreatment was more elevated in samples with higher percentage of females, in higher quality investigations, in studies with case-linkage methods compared to that followed-up participants over time using a prospective cohort design, when general population or matched controls were used rather than selected population controls, and when violent outcomes were ascertained in older individuals. In conclusion, the risk of later violence perpetration was modestly increased in individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment. Preventative strategies and interventions for childhood maltreatment may have an important role in violence reduction. Methodological issues and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Background: Although the number of older people serving community sentences (probation) after conviction for a criminal offence in England and Wales has increased rapidly since about 2006, this population has received little research attention. Aim: To examine the mental health, substance use, and executive functioning of older probationers. Methods: Thirty-two male probationers aged 50 years and older were recruited from probation services in the Thames Valley, England, and administered validated semistructured interviews for psychiatric disorders, symptom checklists for depression and substance use, cognitive impairment screens, and neuropsychological tests of executive functioning (examining verbal fluency and response inhibition).Results: We found that older probationers presented with a high prevalence of mental health difficulties (overall caseness n = 22; 69%, 95% CI ) that exceed estimates in the older general population. Prevalences of depression (25%) or alcohol abuse or dependence (19%) were found to be high. In comparison with normative data, however, older probationers did not present with deficits in tested executive functioning.Conclusions and implications for practice: Mental health and substance use problems were more prominent than cognitive deficits in this sample of older probationers. Further work should include older community controls to inform service planning and to determine how these mental health factors interact with offending.

The review highlights a need for more consistent means of defining and measuring restraint and its associated characteristics. Future research into this area may also want to focus on the context of restraint such as whether it is the least restrictive option used.