All ecological disciplines consider temporal dynamics, although relevant concepts have been developed almost independently. We here introduce basic principles of temporal dynamics in ecology. We figured out essential features that describe temporal dynamics by finding similarities among about 60 ecological concepts and theories. We found that considering the hierarchically nested structure of complexity in temporal patterns (i.e. hierarchical complexity) can well describe the fundamental nature of temporal dynamics by expressing which patterns are observed at each scale. Across all ecological levels, driver-response relationships can be temporally variant and dependent on both shortand long-term past conditions. The framework can help with designing experiments, improving predictive power of statistics, and enhancing communications among ecological disciplines. The Need for Basic Principles of Temporal DynamicsAll ecological disciplines consider temporal dynamics with major paradigms shifting from one to another: equilibrium (see Glossary) to nonequilibrium, and stationary to nonstationary (Box 1). Understanding temporal dynamics is becoming more important in the Anthropocene. Several time-related concepts and statistics have emerged recently [1][2][3][4]. Nevertheless, ecology still lacks basic principles that underlie all studies relevant to temporal dynamics [5], and the exchange of knowledge about temporal dynamics among subdisciplines is limited [6,7].Recently developed concepts include, for example, temporal ecology [5], abrupt shifts in ecological systems [8], ecological memory [3], lag hypothesis for community dynamics [9], and asymptotic environmentally determined trajectories [1]. These were proposed almost independently of each other. However, they all consider that driver-response relationships are not necessarily constant through time, but they depend on the recent and historical past. This perspective brings together various concepts to figure out the essence of temporal dynamics across ecological and temporal scales. HighlightsTemporal dynamics are inherently complex.Concepts and techniques have flourished to understand ecological temporal dynamics in recent years.A key finding of recent studies is that driver-response relationships are not necessarily constant through time, but rather, that they are conditioned by the recent and historical past.Basic principles of temporal dynamics need to be summarized to increase the understanding and predictability of complex temporal dynamics in ecology and evolution.

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Summary• Zn tolerance was investigated in populations of four ectomycorrhizal fungi: Suillus luteus , Suillus bovinus , Rhizopogon luteolus and Paxillus involutus. The fungi were collected in pioneer pine forests at 14 different locations, situated along a Zn pollution gradient. Genetic adaptation to Zn toxicity was previously presumed in a population of S. luteus .• Mycelial biomass production was assessed for 235 isolates exposed to increasing Zn 2+ stress. EC 50 concentrations were determined.• Adaptive Zn tolerance was found in the three species from the Suilloid clade and not in P. involutus . The Suilloid fungi collected within 5 km from a Zn smelter were highly Zn-tolerant, in contrast to isolates collected at least 15 km away from a pollution source. Mixed populations with tolerant and sensitive S. luteus isolates were found in a transition zone, between 5 and 15 km from the Zn smelters.• The severe Zn pollution in the surroundings of the Zn smelters has clearly triggered the evolution of an increased Zn tolerance in the pioneer Suilloid fungi. With increasing distances from the Zn smelters, the frequency of Zn-tolerant genotypes decreases.