There are several interrelated mechanisms involving iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin in neurons. Neuromelanin accumulates during aging and is the catecholamine-derived pigment of the dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra and norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus, the two neuronal populations most targeted in Parkinson’s disease. Many cellular redox reactions rely on iron, however an altered distribution of reactive iron is cytotoxic. In fact, increased levels of iron in the brain of Parkinson’s disease patients are present. Dopamine accumulation can induce neuronal death; however, excess dopamine can be removed by converting it into a stable compound like neuromelanin, and this process rescues the cell. Interestingly, the main iron compound in dopamine and norepinephrine neurons is the neuromelanin-iron complex, since neuromelanin is an effective metal chelator. Neuromelanin serves to trap iron and provide neuronal protection from oxidative stress. This equilibrium between iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin is crucial for cell homeostasis and in some cellular circumstances can be disrupted. Indeed, when neuromelanin-containing organelles accumulate high load of toxins and iron during aging a neurodegenerative process can be triggered. In addition, neuromelanin released by degenerating neurons activates microglia and the latter cause neurons death with further release of neuromelanin, then starting a self-propelling mechanism of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Considering the above issues, age-related accumulation of neuromelanin in dopamine neurons shows an interesting link between aging and neurodegeneration.

Neuronal pigments of melanic type were identified in the putamen, cortex, cerebellum, and other major regions of human brain. These pigments consist of granules 30 nm in size, contained in organelles together with lipid droplets, and they accumulate in aging, reaching concentrations as high as 1.5-2.6 g/mg tissue in major brain regions. These pigments, which we term neuromelanins, contain melanic, lipid, and peptide components. The melanic component is aromatic in structure, contains a stable free radical, and is synthesized from the precursor molecule cysteinyl-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine. This contrasts with neuromelanin of the substantia nigra, where the melanic precursor is cysteinyl-dopamine. These neuronal pigments have some structural similarities to the melanin found in skin. The precursors of lipid components of the neuromelanins are the polyunsaturated lipids present in the surrounding organelles. The synthesis of neuromelanins in the various regions of the human brain is an important protective process because the melanic component is generated through the removal of reactive/toxic quinones that would otherwise cause neurotoxicity. Furthermore, the resulting melanic component serves an additional protective role through its ability to chelate and accumulate metals, including environmentally toxic metals such as mercury and lead.lipids ͉ neuromelanin ͉ brain aging ͉ neurodegenerative

Dopamine (DA) is the most important catecholamine in the brain, as it is the most abundant and the precursor of other neurotransmitters. Degeneration of nigrostriatal neurons of substantia nigra pars compacta in Parkinson's disease represents the best‐studied link between DA neurotransmission and neuropathology. Catecholamines are reactive molecules that are handled through complex control and transport systems. Under normal conditions, small amounts of cytosolic DA are converted to neuromelanin in a stepwise process involving melanization of peptides and proteins. However, excessive cytosolic or extraneuronal DA can give rise to nonselective protein modifications. These reactions involve DA oxidation to quinone species and depend on the presence of redox‐active transition metal ions such as iron and copper. Other oxidized DA metabolites likely participate in post‐translational protein modification. Thus, protein–quinone modification is a heterogeneous process involving multiple DA‐derived residues that produce structural and conformational changes of proteins and can lead to aggregation and inactivation of the modified proteins.

Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra selectively degenerate over the course of Parkinson's disease. These neurons are also the most heavily pigmented cells of the brain, accumulating the dark pigment neuromelanin over a lifetime. The massive presence of neuromelanin in these brain areas has long been suspected as a key factor involved in the selective vulnerability of neurons. The high concentration of neuromelanin in substantia nigra neurons seems to be linked to the presence of considerable amounts of cytosolic dopamine that have not been sequestered into synaptic vesicles. Over the past few years, studies have uncovered a dual nature of neuromelanin. Intraneuronal neuromelanin can be a protective factor, shielding the cells from toxic effects of redox active metals, toxins, and excess of cytosolic catecholamines. In contrast, neuromelanin released by dying neurons can contribute to the activation of neuroglia triggering the neuroinflammation that characterizes Parkinson's disease. This article reviews recent studies on the molecular aspects of neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra.

The dicopper(II) complex with the ligand N,N,N',N',N"-pentakis[(1-methyl-2-benzimidazolyl)methyl]dipropylenetriamine (LB5) has been synthesized and structurally characterized. The small size and the quality of the single crystal required that data be collected using synchrotron radiation at 276 K. [Cu(2)(LB5)(H(2)O)(2)][ClO(4)](4): platelet shaped, P&onemacr;, a = 11.028 Å, b = 17.915 Å, c = 20.745 Å, alpha = 107.44 degrees, beta = 101.56 degrees, gamma = 104.89 degrees, V = 3603.7 Å(3), Z = 2; number of unique data, I >/= 2sigma(I) = 3447; number of refined parameters = 428; R = 0.12. The ligand binds the two coppers nonsymmetrically; Cu1 is coordinated through five N donors and Cu2 through the remaining three N donors, while two water molecules complete the coordination sphere. Cu1 has distorted TBP geometry, while Cu2 has distorted SP geometry. Voltammetric experiments show quasireversible reductions at the two copper centers, with redox potential higher for the CuN(3) center (0.40 V) and lower for the CuN(5) center (0.17 V). The complex binds azide in the terminal mode at the CuN(3) center with affinity lower than that exhibited by related dinuclear polyaminobenzimidazole complexes where this ligand is bound in the bridging mode. The catechol oxidase activity of [Cu(2)(LB5)](4+) has been examined in comparison with that exhibited by [Cu(2)(L-55)](4+) (L-55 = alpha,alpha'-bis{bis[(1-methyl-2-benzimidazolyl)methyl]amino}-m-xylene) and [Cu(2)(L-66)](4+) (L-66 = alpha,alpha'-bis{bis[2-(1-methyl-2-benzimidazolyl)ethyl]amino}-m-xylene) by studying the catalytic oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol in methanol/aqueous buffer pH 5.1. Kinetic experiments show that [Cu(2)(L-55)](4+) is the most efficient catalyst (rate constant 140 M(-1) s(-1)), followed by [Cu(2)(LB5)](4+) (60 M(-1) s(-1)), in this oxidation, while [Cu(2)(L-66)](4+) undergoes an extremely fast stoichiometric phase followed by a slow and substrate-concentration-independent catalytic phase. The catalytic activity of [Cu(2)(L-66)](4+), however, is strongly promoted by hydrogen peroxide, because this oxidant allows a fast reoxidation of the dicopper(I) complex during turnover. The activity of [Cu(2)(LB5)](4+) is also promoted by hydrogen peroxide, while that of [Cu(2)(L-55)](4+) is little affected. The phenol monooxygenase activity of [Cu(2)(LB5)](2+) has been compared with that of [Cu(2)(L-55)](2+) and [Cu(2)(L-66)](2+) by studying the ortho hydroxylation of methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate to give methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate. The LB5 complex is much more selective than the other complexes since its reaction produces only catechol, while the main product obtained with the other complexes is an addition product containing a phenol residue condensed at ring position 2 of the catechol.