This study tested the use of two pedagogical principles of Game-based approaches, representation and exaggeration, in the context of game performance of U10 soccer players. Twenty-one players participated in two 3 vs. 3 small-sided games. The first small-sided game was modified by representation. The second small-sided game was modified by enhancing the penetration of the defense tactical problem for invasion games. Decision-making and execution were assessed using the Game Performance Evaluation Tool. No significant differences were observed between games in the number of decision-making units related to keeping possession, nor in those related to penetrating the defense. No significant differences were observed in any execution ability (ball control, passing, dribbling and get free movements). The findings suggested that both games could provide similar degeneracy processes to the players for skill acquisition (specific and contextualized task constraints in which they could develop their game performance and the capability to achieve different outcomes in varying contexts). Probably both games had similar learner-environment dynamics leading players to develop their capabilities for adapting their behaviours to the changing performance situations. More research is necessary, from the ecological dynamics point of view, to determine how we should use small-sided games in Game-based approaches.

This cross-sectional study investigated the differences between young expert soccer players' (n = 55) and novice players' (n = 74) decision-making ability during performance of invasion games (ages: 7-8, 9-10, 11-12, and 13-14 years). Decision-making ability was assessed in invasion games that were appropriately modified for age and expertise. Games were modified to meet the developmental needs and previous learning of the participants, so interference between motor execution and decision making was minimized. Game performance was videotaped, and measures of cognitive components were developed from observational analysis. Decision making was measured at two levels: (a) decision making restricted to the selection of the technical-tactical skills (passing, moving with the ball, getting free, marking, tackling, double teaming, and interception) and (b) decision making in the adaptation to the tactical context of the game. Expert players remained superior in decision-making ability when variation in skill execution was controlled. Decision-making differences between levels of expertise decreased with age with regard to the first level (skill selection) and increased with age in relation to the second level (tactical-context adaptation). Findings are discussed in terms of implications for instructional focus and task design.

Using self-determination theory as a guiding framework, this study analyzed the impact of the Sport Education Model in self-determination and motivation, psychological basic need thwarting, enjoymentsatisfaction, boredom, and intention to be physically active in Physical Education (PE) of secondary school students in Spain. Two groups were selected for the study: an experimental group (EG; n=43), which received 19 volleyball lessons following the Sport Education Model, and a control group (CG; n=43), which received 19 traditional Physical Education lessons. Pre- and post-intervention measures were taken in both groups. The results showed significant improvements in intrinsic motivation in EG. The results are discussed, and the suitability of the Sport Education Model to improve self-determined behaviors in Physical Education is emphasized.

Background: One of the objectives of the new Spanish Education Act is for students to develop a series of social skills, largely derived from the ability variables of assertiveness and empathy. Sport Education is an instructional model that is deemed useful in the development of personal and social responsibility and social values. It requires interaction among students during group activities as there are many roles and responsibilities involved. Previous research on Sport Education reveals links between certain results and empathy and assertiveness, although no specific studies have been conducted. Purpose: The aim of this research study is to analyse the effect of a Sport Education season on student empathy and assertiveness. Participants and setting: Sport Education was implemented in seven intact groups at five different schools in central Spain. 154 subjects (76 boys and 78 girls) participated in this study, 34 of whom were in primary education year 5 (11 years), 98 in primary education year 6 (12 years) and 22 in secondary education year 2 (14 years). Research design: A single treatment pre-post-test design was applied, in which the tests for measuring the dependent variables (empathy and assertiveness) influenced by the independent variable (the Sport Education season) were applied before, during and at the end of the programme. Data collection: The Empathy Questionnaire and the Children's Assertiveness Behaviour Scale were used to measure dependent variables. Data analysis: For group/team data, analysis of variance was conducted to determine the influence of Sport Education on empathy and assertiveness. For individual students, repeated measures analysis of variance were utilised to measure the influence of factors, such as gender and role at the various points at which the programme was applied (pre-test and post-test). Findings: Positive results were obtained in assertiveness, where differences were significant between pre-test and post-test, although the effect size differed from case to case. Group and team were key aspects when differences were significant. Conclusions and implications: Sport Education was shown to be a useful instructional model for improving a variable (assertiveness) directly related to personal and social responsibility. Nevertheless, in order to achieve these results, teachers need to design and apply pedagogical strategies routinely, and pay very close attention to the dynamics created in the classroom. Further research involving more specific testing of classroom situations in general and Physical Education situations in particular is also required.

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